Benefits of the Stinging Jellyfish

Benefits of the Stinging Jellyfish 

The jellyfish has been around for more than 650 million years, predating both the dinosaurs and the sharks (“Jellyfish Facts”). These resilient creatures have remained unmatched throughout the years and have grown in numbers. Recently, researchers have found that the jellyfish populations have skyrocketed due to the overfishing. Now Japanese fishing nets catch more unwanted jellyfish than fish. These stinging creatures are bombarding the world’s beaches and are becoming an annoyance to beach goers. The jellyfish has overtaken the world’s oceans, making this creature seem more of a nuisance than a convenience. Though a bad reputation has been casted over the jellyfish, this species may prove to be beneficial. Jellyfish have the potential to act as a food source for healthy diets, to sustain fisheries for a stable economy, and to treat arthritis.

For over a thousand years, jellyfish have been a traditional delicacy to the Chinese and recently the nutritional value has been suggested. In China, weddings and formal banquets have jellyfish served in the salads (Hsieh 13). Japan serves jellyfish in a sushi form while Thailand serves jellyfish as a crunchy noodle (Caroline 40). The question is: why would people in Asian society eat jellyfish, if they are menacing creatures with tentacles that sting? The truth is jellyfish are a healthy food source. According to a report commissioned by Spain’s Environment Ministry, “Jellyfish contain 95 percent water… and proteins… and contain almost no lipids, carbohydrates, or cholesterol” (Nash 1). Basically, the report found that jellyfish are a great diet food because jellyfish are high in water and protein. Water decreases appetite, carries nutrients, removes waste, and regulates temperature, while protein helps build bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood. According to Li Jian-Rong and Yun-Hwa P Hsieh, authors of “Traditional Chinese Food Technology and Cuisine”, “the caloric value for a normal 100 g serving of ready-to-use jellyfish is less than 20 kcal,” (152). In other words, jellyfish are extremely low in calories and perfect for people who are watching their weight.

Although jellyfish provide a low calorie diet, in order to use these stinging creatures to a dietary advantage, the jellyfish must go through processing in order to be edible. The jellyfish’s umbrella and oral arms are first separated, then cleaned and soaked in water. A salt and alum mixture coats the umbrella and oral arms. After this step, the umbrella and oral arms are pressed and dried for two to five weeks. Afterwards, the process for product packaging begins, lasting four to six days. Then desalting and rehydration in water occurs in preparation for the shredding, marinating, and cooking of the jellyfish. After the completion of these steps, the jellyfish is finally ready to be served (Jian-rong and Hsieh 151).

Some may find jellyfish to not be a viable food source. Jian-rong and Hsieh, believed that, “the overnight desalting procedure and preparation of jellyfish dish may become a barrier for modern consumers with busy life styles” (152). Today we live in a world where people are looking to prepare fast, easy meals. Jellyfish simply would not fit under these standards. Although the process of desalting is time consuming, processors have found an easier way to package the jellyfish for consumers. Li and Hsieh have said that, “This has been overcome by developing shredded ready to use products with varieties of flavor and sauces” (152). Basically, jellyfish products have adapted to become consumer needs and lifestyles. By jellyfish coming in a package readymade meal, preparation is quick and simple again. In fact, according to Li and Hsieh, “shredded jellyfish have appeared on the supermarket packaged together with condiments such as soy sauce, wasabi or mustard, as a convenient ready to eat food” (152). By having, the shredded jellyfish packaged with condiments and placed in assorted flavors consumers are able to pick the flavor that best suits their palate. No longer is the jellyfish a hassle to prepare, but instead it is a delectable meal that can be eaten any time.

In order to sell these delectable jellyfish on the market, there must be fisheries to sustain the consumer’s needs. Li and Hsieh found that “today semi dried salted jellyfish represent a multimillion-dollar seafood business in Asia” (152). In other words, jellyfish bring in huge amounts of money. The jellyfish industry can improve the local economies because job opportunities are present. Fu-Ming and Hsieh, authors of “Jellyfish as Food”, state, “Processing jellyfish in Asia is a low cost operation that requires little capital but in labor intensive” (11). Since the cost of fishing operations requires little capital, starting up a jellyfish industry would be more realistic in comparison to other fishing industries. The creation of a jellyfish fishing industry could potentially create thousands of jobs in the harvesting of jellyfish. Jobs would include a range of people working on boats harvesting jellyfish to people processing jellyfish for consumption. With new jobs in place, people will have the opportunity to make money and spend it, improving the local economy.

In addition to helping Asia, jellyfish could help boost the United States economy and rid the nuisance. The abundance of jellyfish in our oceans shows that just about any country could start an industry based on jellyfish. Fu-Ming and Hsieh found that “… the U.S. [is] utilizing [its] available species to produce jellyfish products for export” (11). This means that the United States is creating an exporting trade sustained on jellyfish found near its homeland. Fu-Ming and Hsieh explained that the “United States considered the Cannonball Jellyfish to be a nuisance” (11). This is because during the summer jellyfish come close to the coastal waters and swarm around areas that beachgoers tend to visit (Fu-Ming and Hsieh 11). When jellyfish are too abundant, many people do not wish to go to the beach because they are afraid they may be stung. Jellyfish also cause harm to native fish by consuming nutrients that other fish species utilize. Fu-Ming and Hsieh found that a fishery in Florida initiated the first harvesting and processing industry for Cannonball Jellyfish in 1992, in order to get rid of the nuisance and to turn the Cannonball Jellyfish into value-added products (11). In other words, the U.S. decided to harvest the Cannonball Jellyfish and export to countries like Japan and China, where the demand for jellyfish products is high. The exporting of jellyfish benefits the U.S. economically because the industry makes money off exporting the jellyfish and benefits the environment because jellyfish no longer cause harm to native fish species.

Anthony Richardson, Andrew Bakun, Graema Hays, and Mark Gibbons, authors of “The Jellyfish Joyride,” believe that “jellyfish products for food and medicine may put an increase fishing pressure on non-problem species in healthy ecosystems” (319). They believe that overfishing of major fish like tuna and salmon has occurred, dropping major fish populations to minute numbers. They are afraid that the fishing industry will turn to fish species that have greater populations, like jellyfish. If this occurs, fishing industries could potentially reduce populations in these substitute fish species, and bring their numbers down to a plummeting halt. Healthy ecosystems could collapse under these strenuous conditions causing holes in the food chain and creating gaps in healthy ecosystems.

Although Richardson, Bakun, Hays, and Gibbons argue that the jellyfish products may put an increase fishing pressure, Fui-Ming and Hsieh state that “Asian countries are actively developing fisheries management plans in an effort to conserve the jellyfish” (11). The two argue that, “In both China and Thailand, the government fisheries departments control the jellyfish season” (11). In essence, the government is developing conservation techniques to preserve the jellyfish species, and decrease the fishing pressures put upon the jellyfish and other non-problem species. Fui-Ming and Hsieh found that one of the conservation techniques used to preserve the jellyfish is that, “during the last several weeks of the season, the governments do not allow catching because the jellyfish are largest and reproducing” (11). This guideline enables the jellyfish to reproduce in larger numbers therefore allowing the jellyfish to replenish their population. As long as the government installs and enforces guidelines to conserve jellyfish, jellyfish products for food and medicine should not increase fishing pressures.

In addition to feeding people and sustaining fishing industries, jellyfish are being used to a medicinal advantage. Scientists believe that jellyfish collagen could potentially be an effective cure for Rheumatoid Arthritis: “Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the joints, which gradually erodes the cartilage and bone” (“Rheumatoid arthritis”). In other words, the body sees itself as a threat and attacks tissue that would otherwise be healthy. A person without Rheumatoid Arthritis has cartilage between two bones that are connected. The cartilage keeps the bones from rubbing together and acts as padding and a shock absorber. A person with Rheumatoid Arthritis has worn and broken down cartilage because the body sees the healthy cartilage as a threat and attacks, therefore destroying the cartilage padding.

Researchers have found that “The primary protein in cartilage, Type II Collagen (CII) is crucial to joint health and function” (“Rheumatoid Arthritis”). Rheumatoid Arthritis, however, attacks the cartilage, breaks down the Type II Collagen, and leaves the joint weak and inflamed. Researchers are searching for an effective cure to keep the joints of Rheumatoid Arthritis patients healthy and functioning. Jian-Rong and Hsieh may have the answer to this cure. The two hypothesize that “collagen … may be the ingredient in jellyfish contributing to the beneficial health effects because collagen is the essential building material of muscle tissue, cartilage, and bone, and has great medicinal promise” (152). In other words, Jian-Rong and Hsieh believe that collagen taken from jellyfish could potentially be a beneficial medicinal treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Experiments on lab rats were needed in order to see if jellyfish collagen was a potential treatment for human rheumatoid arthritis. Hsieh reported, “Laboratory rats fed with low doses of Cannonball Jellyfish collagen had significantly delayed the onset and reduced the incidence and severity of antigen induced arthritis, [an antigen] model that [is similar to] … human rheumatoid arthritis” (152). In essence, lab rats with the arthritis antigen had similar symptoms to human Rheumatoid Arthritis, which included inflammation and stiffness. The collagen harvested from jellyfish suppressed these symptoms in the rats. This experiment gives supporting evidence in that jellyfish collagen may be an effective cure to human Rheumatoid Arthritis because jellyfish collagen was able to suppress symptoms in rats with a similar arthritis antigen.

Another study done by Anhui Medical University of China showed that chicken collagen also suppressed the symptoms of human Rheumatoid Arthritis (Can Chicken). Although their findings prove to be true, Brian Wright, who works for the office of technology transfer at Auburn University, found that “Jellyfish collagen is more homogeneous than bovine or chicken Type II collagen, [and] it showed a superior effect in suppressing the onset of arthritis in rats” (1). In other words, jellyfish collagen is more effective in the treatment of human Rheumatoid Arthritis than chicken collagen. Wright also found that another advantage to using jellyfish collage instead of chicken collagen is that jellyfish collagen is “less expensive to extract and minimizes the effect of adverse side effects” (1). This means that jellyfish collagen is not costly and is safe to administer to Rheumatoid Arthritis patients.

Imagine sitting in a restaurant and having your sever bring you a plate of jellyfish with your choice of soy sauce, wasabi or mustard. Instead of pushing this dish to the side, remember that jellyfish can be a beneficial food source because they are full of water and protein, making them a powerful diet food. The demand for jellyfish on the menu is rising, creating fishing industries that boost local economies and create job opportunities. Jellyfish also are a medicinal benefit because they contain collagen that slows or stops the effects of arthritis. So next time you see a jellyfish remember they are more beneficial than they are harmful.
Work Cited 
"Can Chicken Collagen Treat Symptoms of Rheumatoid Arthritis." Arthritis, Arthritis Diet, Arthritis Exercises, Arthritis Therapies. YOGY, 23 Aug. 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2010. 
Fui-Ming, Jack Rudloe, and Peggy Hsieh. "Jellyfish as 
Food."Hydrobiologia 2007: 11-17. Seaturtle. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Web. 9 Nov. 2010 
"Jellyfish Facts." AC Tropical Fish & Aquarium. 2006. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. 
Jian-Rong, Li, and Yun-Hwa P. Hsieh. "Traditional Chinese food technology and 
cuisine." Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13.2 (2004): 147-155. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 5 Nov. 2010. 
Nash, Elizabeth. "Something Fishy about the Jelly on Your Plate?" LexisNexis. LexisNexis, 01 Nov. 2008. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. 
"Rheumatoid Arthritis, Role Of Type II Collagen, Study." Medical News Today. 04 Dec. 2005. Web. 29 Nov. 2010. 
Richardson, Anthony J, Andrew Bakun, Graema Hays, Mark Gibbons. 
"The Jellyfish Joyride: Causes, Consequences and Management Responses to a More Gelatinous Future." Cell Press. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. 

Williams, Caroline. "The next big fin." New Scientist 201 (2009): 40-3. OmniFile Full Text Mega. Web. 5 Nov. 2010. 
Wright, Brian. "Use of Jellyfish Collagen in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis." Auburn University. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.

Whale Falls

Whale fall stages lead to stepping-stone 

A group of five or more killer whales has come across a young blue whale and mother. The pod strategizes an attack, where each killer whale takes turns chasing the mother and her calf. The mother tries to push her calf towards the surface to breathe for air, but the killer whales persist on, tiring out the calf and the mother. The calf finally separates from the mother and the killer whales attack preventing the calf from coming up for air. The young blue whale drowns, and the killer whales feast on their prey.

This scenario is one of many that can lead to the production of a whale fall. As the whales’ corpse settles to the bottom of the ocean, three known phases of colonization can occur. These three phases are the mobile scavengers phase, the enrichment – opportunist stage, and the sulfophilic stage (Calkins 2010). Different assemblages of species appear at each stage giving evidences that whale falls may be the stepping-stone between hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. This paper will discuss the formation of each phase, the organisms found at each phase, and the stepping-stone theory between whale falls, hydrothermal vents, and cold seeps.

The first phase is the mobile scavenger phase. This stage lasts only a few months, and is the shortest of the three stages because scavenger organisms like the hagfish, sleeper sharks, rattail fish, amphipods, and crustaceans devour the meat of the whales’ corpse (Calkins 2010). First crustacean plankton colonizes the whale, then sharks, and scavenger fish. There is a high density of species on the whale; however, there is very little diversity between the species. Amphiopods and copepods carve tunnels into the whales’ body as they consume most of the whales flesh. Predators have easier access to the whales’ meat because of this (Bonnemains 2010).

In a study, Craig Smith and his colleagues supported by NURP implanted three whale carcasses off the coast of southern California (Russo 2004). Alvin the Human Operated Vehicle took these scientists to the whale fall sites to observe the mobile scavenger phase in action (Russo 2004). They found that after six weeks of implantation one whale was still largely intact, but had hundreds of hagfish feeding on it (Milius 2005). The hagfish had become forty centimeters long and were feeding on the meat of the carcass (Milius 2005). In order to take a piece of the whales meat for food, the hagfish takes a biting grip in the whale, ties itself in a knot, and then pulls its body out using its force to tear out a piece of the whales meat (Milius 2005). Black hagfish and the white-headed hagfish are the typical hagfish species that aggregate around whale falls (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish live inside the whales’ skeleton because they are able to survive high levels of carbon gas and methane (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish are an interesting species because they are the only fish known to keep their blood at the same concentration of salt as the outside environment (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish are able to live five years and swim to depths of 3000 meters (Bonnemains 2010). They have an extraordinary sense of smell that allows them to smell a whales’ carcass from 0.6 to 0.8 meters away (Bonnemains 2010).

Scientists also found Sleeper Sharks in the midst of the scavenging organisms. This was a new discover because Sleeper Sharks are rarely seen by humans, because they are a deep-water species. Sleeper sharks between 1.5 and 3.5 meters have been seen feeding on grey whale falls by grabbing the whales’ meat and then twisting its body back and forth until a piece is freed (Milius 2005) (Bonnemains 2010). Observations of bite marks on whale falls have led scientist to believe that the sleeper shark, in comparison to other fish species, consumes the bulk of the whales’ meat (Bonnemains 2010).

During this mobile scavenger phase, thirty-eight different species may take part in the consumption of 90 percent of whales’ meat and tissue (Russo 2004).The consumption rate per day is an estimated 40 to 60 kilograms of flesh per day (Bennett 2002). The bulk of the whale meat is gone within eighteen months (Milius 2005). One of the implanted whale carcasses, located off the coast of Santa Cruz, has sustained the mobile scavenger phase for the past nine months, and has the potential to last two years (Russo 2004). The sediment around the whale carcass is full of nutrients from the debris left behind by the scavengers and attracts smaller organisms to start the next phase of colonization (Calkins 2010).

The second phase is the enrichment- opportunist stage. This stage can last 4 months to 5 years (Bonnemains 2010). Snails, little amphipods, and segmented worms aggregate around the whale fall during this stage. Baco-Taylor and other scientists have found that 45,000 individuals are in each square meter of sediment (Milius 2005). These organisms feed off the organic material stored in whalebones and the sediments, up to 3 meters away, which surround the whale skeleton (Bonnemains 2010) (Bennett 2002).

Several polychaetes and clams are exclusive to the enrichment- opportunist stage of whale falls. Smith describes finding a polychaetes worm that sends green root like coils into the bone. These roots then release a rod shaped bacteria that break down organic compounds in order for the worm to digest (Milius 2005). These worms can grow as long as fifty millimeters and resemble centipedes (Russo 2004).

Beggiotoa bacteria also colonize along the bones of the whale skeleton forming a bacterial mat made of long filaments. This bacterium oxidizes hydrogen sulfide as an energy source. Segmented worms called Bathykurile guaymasensis then eat these bacteria and receive their nutrients this way (Milius 2005).

After the worms disappear the Beggiotoa bacteria continues to feed on the fats and oils contained in the whales’ bone (Bennett 2002). This is the start of the third phase, the sulfophilic stage. This phase can last forty to eighty years (Bonnemains 2010). Three key elements characterize this phase. First, bacterial mats cover the surface of the bone (Bonnemains 2010). Then, large populations of clams move in. these clams harbor chemosynthetic bacteria (Bonnemains 2010). Finally, over 30,000 individual bivalves, amphiopods, polychaetes, limpets, gastropods, and crustaceans aggregate (Bonnemains 2010).

About sixty percent of the whales’ weight is made of lipid, which bacteria break down in order to produce sulfide (Calkins 2010). Bacteria then use chemosynthesis to oxidize sulfide to make organic matter that supports other organisms like the Vestimentiferan tubeworm.

Bacteria form the basis of the food web, because without chemosynthesis life would no longer occur. Light is unable to penetrate the depths at which the whale skeleton has sunk, and there is no longer and meat left on the bones. The only way to survive is to harvest bacteria that use the process of chemosynthesis for energy.

Mollusks aggregate around the whale fall during the last stage. Vesicomyid clams carry a sulfide- metabolizing bacteria and get their energy directly from the sulfide. The Idas washingtonia mussel has been seem to colonize in the 10,000’s on a single whale (Milius 2005).

Scientists have found 190 different bottom dwelling species on a single whale carcass (Calkins 2010). These organisms use the whale fall as a food source and a substrate. Carnivorous gastropods feed on the bivalves, the bivalves feed off their bacteria, and the bacteria gain their energy through chemosynthesis. In fact, the sulfophilic stage can have at least three different levels on the food web at any given time (Bonnemains 2010).

In the late stages of the sulfophilic stage, the whale fall community begins to resemble the communities found at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps also have bacteria as the basis of their food webs and are host to ten to twenty percent of the 200-sulpholic species found at whale falls (Bennett 2002). Just as the bacteria found at whale falls the bacteria at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps also oxidize sulfide in order to make organic matter.

In addition, DNA analysis allowed Smith and other scientists to compare the genetic makeup of Idas washingtonia found on whale falls to a mussel found on deep- sea wood. Scientists found that these two mussels share the same sub family, Bathymodilinae, with mussels found on hydrothermal vents and cold seeps (Russo 2004). In fact, these molecular studies show that whale falls may actually serve as a stepping-stone between cold seeps and hydrothermal vents (Smith 2003). Smith theorizes that the ancestors of these mussels may have moved deeper into the ocean following the whale falls organic food source. The mussels then moved from the organic richness of the whale fall to the sulfide rich hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. This theory could be true for other organisms. For example, California whale falls share ten species with vents, nine with seeps, four with anoxic sediment, and one with wood falls (Russo 2004).

Whale falls are an important bridge between hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. Hydrothermal vent are commonly found along the mid-ocean ridge, such as the east pacific rise and the mid Atlantic ridge. Some cold seeps include the Florida Escarpment and the Laurentian Fan. Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps are not located near each other therefore organisms are unable to travel to these locations without the help of whale falls. Whale falls are more widespread than hydrothermal vents and seeps (Smith 2003). Researchers estimate that roughly every five to sixteen kilometers along the sea floor is a whale fall (Bennett 2002). This would make the journey of organisms from hydrothermal vents, close seeps, and whale falls, easier because locations would be closer together.

Each phase of the whale falls brings a diverse assemblage of species. The first stage, mobile scavenger phase, features organisms that feed on the meat. The second stage, enrichment – opportunist phase, features organisms that feed on the bones. The third stage, sulfophilic phase, features organisms that use chemosynthesis for energy. Each stage processes new life on the whale fall. The whale fall may even give passageway for organisms to move to hydrothermal vent and cold seeps, proving the stepping- stone theory correct.

Work Cited:
Bennett, Kim. "Whale Falls—islands of Abundance and Diversity in the Deep Sea." Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. Dec. 2002. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2002/dec20_whalefall.html>. Bonnemains, Jacky. "Of Whales and Their Usefulnessy." Robin Des Bois. Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. 
<http://www.robindesbois.org/english/Of_whales_and_their_Usefulness.pdf>. 
Calkins, Mandy. "Whale Falls." Science and the Sea. The University of Texas Marine Science Institute, 08 Mar. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. 
<http://www.scienceandthesea.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=276&Itemid=6>. 
Milius, Susan. "Decades of Dinner Underwater Community Begins with the Remains of a 
Whale." Science News Online. 07 May 2005. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.phschool.com/science/science_news/articles/decades_of_dinner.html>. 
Russo, Julie Z. "This Whale's (After) Life." NURP. NOAA's Undersea Research Program, 21 Aug. 2004. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.nurp.noaa.gov/Spotlight/Whales.htm>. 
Smith, Craig R. and Baco, Amy R. (2003): Ecology of whale falls at the deep-sea floor. In R.N. 
Gibson and R.J.A. Atkinson, eds., Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual 
Review, vol. 41, pp. 311-354.

Deep-Sea Corals

Deep-Sea Corals

Dr. Erik E Corcles lectured on the deep-water horizon impacts of the deep sea and how coral could possibly be restored. The deep-water horizon incident occurred April 20, 2010, where 11 loves were lost, 7 people were injured, and 5 million barrels of oil entered the open water. At the time, many scientific studies were taking place in the gulf focusing on physiology, community ecology, genetics, monitoring, oceanography, and habitat preference. Scientists were finding that there were more deep-sea corals then tropical shallow water corals. There is a hypothesis that state the deep-sea corals evolved and then slowly moved closer to the surface to form shallow tropical water corals. Another hypothesis states that the opposite is it true.

In fact, there are deep-sea bubble gums corals off the coast of New Jersey. These types of corals need a slow flux and a high carbonate area to survive. In order to find more deep-sea corals like this in the Gulf of Mexico echo sounding, multi beam, and AUVs were used. Oil drillers used this data to find new sites for oil rigs that are not directly on top of the corals. However, they are not far from the coral sites, so incidents like the deep-water horizon spill could affect the corals.

At first and second glance, the corals looked fine and showed little sign that the oil spill had affected them. However when the corals were visited a third time the effects of the oil began to show physically on the corals. In one instance, a species-specific relationship was seen with a brittle star and a coral. The brittle star and coral originally looked fine, however by the third visit, the brittle star had disappeared and the coral physically looked deteriorated with few healthy polyps. A later visit showed that hydroids had begun to appear taking over the coral and giving a fuzzy appearance.

Scientists were able to link the damage to the coral to the deep water horizon spill through analysis of the back mystery substance left on the corals. When corals become stressed, mucus is released that catches particles that could be harmful. The mucus formed bubbles around the black mystery substance and samples were compared to the oil from horizon. There was a match, which gave evidence that the oil from the spill negatively affected the deep-sea corals. Other factors that played a role in the coral deterioration were the oil, dispersant toxicity, genetic responses, and microbial associations.

Compensation and restoration of the corals is another issue at hand. It is hard to assign a monetary value to the deep-sea corals however, biological economists will try to do that in an effort to have horizon compensate for the damages.

Restoration of these deep-sea coral is an unexplored issue. No one has ever tried to restore deep-sea coral before so this will be new. Four species are found at these great depths. Some of the corals that are there are 500 to 600 years old. They have a long generation time and do not easily form. Their growth rate is 0.4- 0.6cm per year, while there mortality rate is one incl every 9-10 years. However, this spill has increased the mortality rate tremendously, which can make restoration harder to accomplish. The recruitment rate of these corals is 1.2 to 1.4 incl per year. Scientists are looking into placing cement balls on the sea floor in order to increase the amount of substrate. This may help deep sea corals re-colonize and hopefully increase in numbers. However because the corals growth rate is slow the effects of the cement balls may not be seen for years. Therefore, restoration of the coral may take a long time to accomplish if it is even possible.

Physics of Submarines

Submarines

Usually when people think of submarines, they think of submarines as a tool of war. is The first submarines were initially built for the Revolutionary and Civil wars as a way to spy on what the enemy was doing. Today submarines are used for much more than war strategy. They are used in scientific exploration of the deep sea. So far, submarines have enabled people to discover hydrothermal vents, descend to the marinas trench, and much more. An example of a submarine that has aided in deep sea research is that Nautile.

The French maritime research institute, Ifremer, owns the deep-sea submersible known as the Nautile (BBC). The Nautile has a design for observing and operating at deep depths. The submersible was commissioned in 1984 and since then has logged nearly 1,500 dives from the research vessels Nadir or l'Atalante (Nautile). The Nautile is capable of operating at depths up to 6 kilometers (BBC). It is equipped with acoustic image mapping which lets the ship send footage that they find of underwater objects to the surface (Nautile). A maximum of three people can be in the Nautile during a dive and the people onboard have a very small three-meter wide cabin (BBC). The submarine can carry five hours’ worth of oxygen (Nautile). The Nautile is capable of traveling at a speed of 1.7 knots since it has four different thruster motors. If necessary, the Nautile can have a tiny robot probe called Robin (BBC). This probe can detach from the submarine and can be operated by remote control in order to look at inaccessible areas or dangerous wrecks (BBC). 

The Nautile is most famous for exploring the Titanic site and searching for and raising other wrecks, but does many other things (Nautile). The submarine has assisted other submersibles that were in distress (Nautile). It is also used to explore specific zones in the ocean to collect samples. The Nautile assists in many offshore assignments that involve pipeline layouts and inspections (Nautile).

The Nautile was responsible for discovering eight species of carnivorous sponges that were near active hydrothermal vents near the East Pacific Rise and of the North Fiji and Lau Basins (New Carni.). Once discovered, the observation from the submersibles was used to describe the sponges’ life conditions (New Carni.). The sponges that were found suggest that there is a lot of diversity among sponges in the deep pacific (New Carni.).

This is just one of many submarines that are used to explore the deep sea plus the many others that are used for war purposes. Many factors play a role in allowing the submarine to power on, dive and surface, and find objects that are around them. In order to see how a submarine truly works the physics of fission, buoyancy, and sonar must be examined.

Submarines first ran on diesel fuel engines just like the cars and boats before them. The diesel fuel engine allowed the submarine to have plenty of power to move the propellers so that the sub could dive down into the ocean deep (Earls, 2003). However, the diesel fuel engine did have a few cons because the fuel was expensive and it only allowed the submarine to be below the water for very little time (Earls, 2003). When the submarine ran above the water there was no problem with the engine because the emissions could be released into the air, however when the submarine dived below the water level there was very little space for the emissions to go lowering the oxygen supply to the people aboard (Earls, 2003). In 1955, the powering of submarines changed thanks to an American boat called the USS Nautilus (Earls, 2003). 

The USS Nautilus used a process called fission to power its propellers instead of the diesel fuel engine (Nuclear, 2000). Energy is created through fission when atoms are split (Nuclear, 2000). In the case of the submarine, the use of the isotope Uranium- 235 is preferred because it allows fission to be induced because the isotope absorbs neutrons when they are present and splits them into smaller atoms (Nuclear, 2000). This allows a large amount of energy to be released including heat and gamma rays (Nuclear, 2000). Uranium- 235 is so powerful in comparison to diesel fuel that it takes one-pound Uranium- 235 to produce the effects that a million gallons of gas would (Nuclear, 2000). In order for the submarine to harness all of the energy being released, the submarine must be equipped with a propulsion plant (Nuclear, 2000). 

For submarines, part of the pressure hull and bulkheads at each ends form a horizontal cylinder that stores the propulsion plant (Nuclear, 2000). The propulsion power plant has two systems called the primary and secondary system (Nuclear, 2000). The primary system first starts when the nuclear reactor induces fission to Uranium- 235 (Earls, 2003). The reaction generates heat energy and that heat energy is then transferred to the water that surrounds the reactor (Earls, 2003). This part of the system occurs under very high pressures to keep the water from boiling (Earls, 2003). The heated water then moves to the steam generator and then returns to the reactor to be reheated (Earls, 2003). The second system starts at the steam generator where the water from the primary system transfers heat to the water in the secondary system that boils to create steam (Earls, 2003). The steam then powers the turbines, which powers the electricity and the propeller shaft of the submarine (Nuclear, 2000). The steam is then condensed back to water so it can be reused (Earls, 2003). The propulsion power plant keeps the primary and secondary systems separate, which also keep the water, used in each system separate (Nuclear, 2000). One of the great benefits of using this process compared to the diesel fuel is that the water in each system is reused and therefore does not need to be refilled and there are no emissions or toxic fumes that are given off (Nuclear, 2000).

Using fission the submarine is able to stay under the water longer than before, but there are drawbacks to this process. The induced fission of Uranium- 235 causes radiation (Nuclear, 2000). In order to fend against this danger 100 tons of lead shield are placed around the reactor in order to protect the crewmembers (Nuclear, 2000).

The 100-ton lead shields add a lot of weight to the submarine (Earls, 2003). A submarine can way about 6,900 tons which makes it very easy to sink, but a submarine must be able to be controlled so that it stays at a certain depth in the water or stays afloat on the surface of the water (Earls, 2003). Archimedes principle comes in handy for understanding how the submarine is able to control when it surfaces and dives. Archimedes principle states that the magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the weight of the fluid displaced by the object (Blow the). The buoyant force in this case is the force of the water on the submarine, which means that the density of the submarine must equal the density of the water outside of it in order to have a neutral buoyancy (Blow the). If the submarine wants to dive, the density of the submarine must be greater than density of the water (Blow the). This is negative buoyancy (Blow the). If the submarine wants to surface, the density of the submarine must be less than that of the water (Blow the). This is positive buoyancy (Blow the). 

The submarine is able to control its density using ballast tanks that are located on the outside (Marshall). If the submarine wants to stay on the surface, the ballast tanks are filled with air because air is less dense than water (Marshall). The ballast tanks fill with water and the air is released when the submarine wants to make a dive because the density is greater than that of the water outside (Marshall). In order to return to the surface when under water the ballast tanks are pumped with compressed air and the water is forced out (Earls, 2003). This caused the density of the submarine to lessen allowing the buoyant force pushing up to be greater than the weight pulling the submarine down (Earls, 2003). 

Hydroplanes are also used in the process of surfacing and diving (Marshall). They are located on the back of the submarine and look like the wings of an airplane. The hydroplanes act like rudders because they help steer the submarine up or down (Marshall). The wings can tilt on an upward angle or downward angle in order to tilt the nose up and back down or the nose down and the backup (Earls, 2003). When the submarine is diving the hydroplanes tilted downward to make the nose of the submarine go down and the back to pop up (Earls, 2003). This allows the submarine to face downward as it is making the dive (Earls, 2003). When the submarine in surfacing, the hydroplanes tilt upward, so the nose of the submarine pointes upward and the back is down. This allows the submarine to face upward as it comes to the surface (Earls, 2003).

When controlling the depth of the submarine the hydroplanes are straightened in order to keep the submarine level (Earls, 2003). The ballast tanks are monitored so that the balances of air and water have a density that is equal to the density of the water outside (Earls, 2003). This keeps the submarine at a certain depth and stops it from sinking or rising to a different depth. 

This technique of controlling diving and surfacing can be seen in many marine species. Fish have air bladders that help them control what depth level they want to keep just like submarine use a ballast to keep a certain depth level. When the fish wants to move up in depth the sac is filled with more air. When the fish wants to descend in depth the tank loses air. The fish also has fins, which helps it move up and down in the water column just as submarines have hydroplanes that allow them to move up and down in the water (Earls, 2003). 

Light stops penetrating the ocean at very deep depths making it difficult for the submarine to see what is around it. When light is present the submarine relies on video cameras, however when light is not present the submarine relies on sonar which stands for sound navigation and ranging. The submarine is equipped with two different types of sonar, which are passive sonar, and active sonar (What is). 

Passive sonar use microphones that are very sensitive to sound underwater (What is). This allows noises from all around the ocean to be picked up. The submarine is equipped with a computer console that records the noises pick up by the microphone and compares the noises to a sound database (Earls, 2003). The sound database is made up of signature sounds like ocean waves, animal noises, and the noises of another boat or submarine (Earls, 2003). If the microphone picks up a sound, the sound is recorded and then the database compares it to signature noises and tells the submarine if there is an incoming threat of another ship or if the sound was just from the ocean (Earls, 2003).

The other type of sonar a submarine can use is active sonar. Active sonar uses sound waves to determine where objects are in the ocean (What is). It works by emitting a sound wave out into the ocean and timing how long it take for the sound wave that is reflected back off anther objects to reach the submarine (What is). The recorded sound wave can tell the submarine how far an object is and whether it is moving. Active sonar tells the submarine the speed of an object using the Doppler Effect, focusing on pitch (Earls, 2003). If the recorded sound waves have crests that are close together, the object they bounced off is moving toward the submarine (Earls, 2003). If the recorded sound waves have crests that are, far apart the object they bounced off is moving away from the submarine (Earls, 2003). 

In order to tell if an object is moving, the submarine emits a sound wave at a certain frequency and records the frequency of the wave that is bounced back (Earls, 2003). If the frequency of the wave that is bounced back is different from the frequency of the wave that was sent out the speed of the object can be calculated (Earls, 2003). If the crests of the incoming frequency are close together, then the speed of the object can be found using the formula 

f1 = (v + vo / v – vs) f

because the object is coming toward the submarine (Earls, 2003). The original frequency is f, the reflected frequency is f1, the speed of sound in water is v, the speed of the submarine is vo, and the speed of the target is vs (Earls, 2003). If the crests of the incoming frequency are far apart, then the speed of the object can be found using the formula

f1 = (v - vo / v + vs) f

because the object is coming toward the submarine (Earls, 2003). The variables stay the same. The range of the target can then be found by using the formula

d = r * t

where the distance is d, the rate is r, and the time is t (Earls, 2003). The distance of how far an object is from the submarine is very important because it keeps the driver of the submarine from crashing into rocks or other submarines (Earls, 2003).

Submarines work because of the understanding of physics. Submarines are able to run off of energy created by fission when uransium-235 meets a neuron. Submarines are able to surface and dive in into the water due to density and buoyancy. Submarines are able to determine sounds of objects, the location of objects, and the speed of objects because of sonar. These components of physics have allowed submersibles like the Nautile to do research in the deep oceans. As the technology and understanding of submarines grows so will the knowledge of the oceans.

Works Cited:
"BBC NEWS | Europe | Nautile: Miniature Submarine." BBC News - Home. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2536339.stm>. 
"Blow the Ballast!" Office of Naval Research Home Page. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/blowballast/sub/work1.htm>. 
Brian, Marshall, and Craig Freudenrich. "HowStuffWorks "How Submarines Work"" HowStuffWorks "Science" Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/submarine1.htm>. 
Earls, Nathan. "Physics.org | Explore | The Physics of Submarines." The Physics of Submarines. Physics.org, 2003. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://www.physics.org/explorelink.asp?id=4905>. 
Simon, Natalie. Marine Discoveries. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://marinediscoveries.blogspot.com/>. 
I added my blog because my opening of the paper about the Nautile is on it and I did not want you to think I plagiarized. 
"Nautile - Ifremer Fleet." Flotte Ifremer. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://flotte.ifremer.fr/fleet/Presentation-of-the-fleet/Underwater-systems/Nautile/>. 
"New Carnivorous Sponges ( Porifera , Poecilosclerida ) Collected from Manned Submersibles in the Deep Pacific | Mendeley." Free Reference Manager and PDF Organizer | Mendeley. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://www.mendeley.com/research/new-carnivorous-sponges-porifera-poecilosclerida-collected-manned-submersibles-deep-pacific/>. 
"Nuclear Propulsion." Federation of American Scientists. 29 Feb. 2000. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/eng/reactor.html>. 
"What Is Sonar?" NOAA's National Ocean Service. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sonar.html>. 
Valadres, Eduardo. "Fun Physics Experiments with Household Objects." InformIT. 23 Sept. 2005. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. <http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=413663&seqNum=2>.

Aquarius the Underwater Laboratory:

Aquarius the Underwater Laboratory:

The National Geographic Channel series Naked Science had an episode called The Dangers of the Deep, which describes the underwater observatory, Aquarius. Aquarius is owned by NOAA and operated by NURC/UNCW. This observatory is found three and a half miles offshore, at a depth of sixty feet and is off the coast of Key Largo at the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Aquarius is equipped with microwaves, telephones, and computers so divers are always connected to people on land. For ten days, six biologists go to Aquarius to do research on the coral reefs. Biologists are able to scuba dive for nine hours and study shallow environment of fifty to 100 feet.
Biologist at Aquarius use saturation diving when conducting research. By doing this, scientists are able to stay in the water for a longer period. This is because depth, gas mixture and supply, weather, and decompression obligation are no longer a factor because scientists stay at a depth of sixty feet. Since these factors are no longer a problem, a diver can stay around that depth for an unlimited amount of time and decompress once the dive has ended.
Aquarius has supported 80 missions since 1993 pertaining to coral reefs, the harvesting of fish, disease, and climate change. Aquarius scientists have discovered the damaging effects ultraviolet light has on coral reefs and how corals feed and grow.Schools around the United States have teamed up with Aquarius for an educational outreach program. Point-to-point video conferences and web chats allow students to learn about science projects and underwater studies.

Work Cited:
Miller, Steve. "Live Web Chat and Video Conference: NASA Mission in NOAA's Aquarius (06/09/03)." NURP. NURP, 09 June 2003. Web. 14 Nov. 2010. .
Moore, Barbara. "NOAA's Aquarius Featured on CNN.Com and ABCNEWS (07/20/05)." NURP. 20 July 2005. Web. 14 Nov. 2010.
Gordon, Bart. "Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Reps :: Member Speech :: E&E Subcommittee Chairman Baird’s Remarks on the Floor on Loss of Aquanaut at NOAA Undersea Research Center." Web Site for the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives :: Welcome. 07 May 2009. Web. 14 Nov. 2010. .

Pinky and the Brain: Alvin

Pinky and the Brain: Alvin

Click here to see part of the episode

“Pinky and the Brain” episode pertaining to the HOV Alvin was very entertaining however many of the images depicted were false, but some held true. For instance, in the episode a rope attaches Alvin to a dock. Pinky and the Brain simply untie the rope and steal the submersible without detection. In real life, Alvin is under far more security. The episode also depicted Alvin as a submersible that rides on the surface of the water, goes 12 knots, and makes journeys that last seven months. In reality, Alvin can go at a cruise speed of 0.5 knots, and a full speed of 2 knots, which is not very fast. Alvin also does not operate on the ocean’s surface. Alvin can actually dive to 4,500 meters and does most research on the seafloor. In addition, Alvin cannot last seven months at sea running just on battery power. In reality, a normal dive time last six to ten hours. The episode depicts Alvin as being very spacious with big windows, when in actuality Alvin has sealed pressurized compartments, and three very small windows. This episode also portrayed Alvin as having an attachable ROV named Jason Jr. In actuality, Alvin does not have an ROV attached to it. However, in the episode, Brain uses the ROV to searching for a deepwater white crab to add to his hypnotizing pancake mixture. He looks at the Titanic site because white crabs are affluent there. In reality, titanic site does not host white crabs, and the crabs do not have a hypnotizing power.

However, there is some truth to the “Pinky and the Brain” episode, The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute actually owns an ROV named Jason. They also mention that the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute owns Alvin, which is also true. The white crab Brain was searching for is not found at the Titanic site, however it is found at hydrothermal vents because chemosynthesis can be performed.

The “Pinky and the Brain” episode may have offended Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, but I found it to be extremely funny!

http://www3.telus.net/greenfish/animaniacs/brain/index.html

The link above will lead you to Pinky and the Brain Episode Facts. Here are some listed on this site:

+ Woods Hole is also home to the Alvin submersible and Jason Jr. robotic probe seen in this episode, which are actual vehicles used by Bob Ballard in a 1986 exploration of the Titanic. (KP) + Alvin is really one of half dozen or so subs that are capable of diving to the Titanic's depth. NIT: Alvin must be brought into place by a support ship, as it only has about 12 hours of battery power. (BEC) + Jason Jr. was designed to be a tethered remote for Alvin, and was used during the second Woods Hole Titanic expedition in 1986, but has since been retired. Minor nit, the real JJ is blue. (BEC) - NIT: The radar transponder about the Alvin has two knobs to set the code in the scene where Pinky scrambles it, and three when they come back from the first commercial break. (JM) + Pinky's asking if he can be Queequeg is a reference to the Polynesian harpooner in Herman Melville's 1851 novel "Moby Dick". (JS, GJB) + Sub Club == The Club, a popular anti-theft device found on many automobile steering wheels. (BN) - The reference to the sub being able to make only right turns could be a nod to J. Edgar Hoover's alleged superstition about all things sinistral. He was purported to have believed that left turns were bad luck, and his chauffeurs would often travel incredibly circuitous routes to reach places that could have been traveled in minutes using left turns. (ALS) + Pinky quotes a line from Baywatch. Baywatch is a popular syndicated program whose plot centers around showing as many beautiful female and male lifeguards running around the beach in skimpy swimsuits as possible in one hour. (BN)

Work Cited

"Alvin Specifications : Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution." Home : Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Web. 11 Nov. 2010. .

Fishing is a Sport

Fishing is a Sport

Many people believe fishing is just a hobby, but I think fishing is a sport because there are special techniques involved when hooking a fish. First off, the time of day, season, and temperature of the water play a factor in finding where the fish are. In the spring, fish do not bite as much in the morning and early afternoon because the water is to cold. As the water warms throughout the day, fish tend to become more active in the evening. In the summer season, fish tend to bite more in the early morning because food is abundant and in the early evening, because the water starts to cool off from the hot day. In the fall fish tend to be more active in the late evening because, the water has absorbed heat from radiating from the sun. Fall is also the best season to fish because the fish are putting on weight for the winter. Temperature plays a role in fishing as well. Warm water tends to attract baitfish, which in turn attracts larger game fish. On hot summer day’s fish tend to move to cooler water that is deeper

Second thing an angler needs to know is how to play the fish. This involves two steps, the first being to retrieve the fishing line quickly as the rod is lowered until it is horizontal and pointed at the fish. The second step is to stop reeling in the line and to raise the rod up slowly. These steps are repeated until the fish is landed. Each playing of the fish is different depending on the type of fish being caught. Shallow water fish tend to jump more while deeper water fish tend to make a run for deeper water. Deeper water fish are harder to reel in because they are stronger and bigger and always run. The best way to catch these types of fish is to reel when the fish has slowed on stopped running. When reeling these big fish anglers pull the rod up and reel downward.

The third thing an angler needs to know is how to land the fish. There are five ways to land a fish. The first way is to pick the fish up by the mouth using the thumb and index finger to crab the lower jaw. The second technique is to use a gaff. Most anglers use this technique when they know they will be keeping the fish and when the fish is big enough to keep. The third way is to net a fish. Nets are made today to withstand a lot of weight. For this technique the net is placed in the water and the fish is then lead to it head first. The fourth technique is the eye pick up, but it is not recommended if the angler plans to release the fish. The fifth technique is to beach a fish. This is when a fish is hooked in deeper water, reeled into shallower water, and gradually to land.

Fishing is a sport because many techniques are used in finding a fish, playing the fish, and landing the fish. Angler put a lot of effort into catching all types of fish.

Work cited
State, By. "Take Me Fishing | When to Fish." When to Fish. Web. 07 Nov. 2010.
State, By. "Take Me Fishing | Landing the Fish." Landing the Fish. Web. 07 Nov. 2010.
State, By. "Take Me Fishing | Playing the Fish." Playing the Fish. Web. 07 Nov. 2010.