Cultural Shock- The Honey Moon Stage

Cultural Shock occurs when a person moves into a culture that is different from his or her own culture. An emotional trauma occurs from the frustrations of dealing with the host cultures way of communicating, customs, and value systems. Frustrations can come from anything the new culture offers such as food availability, standards of cleanliness, personal safety, accommodations, and much more such as the difference in routine. People may feel like an outsider, holding different values in comparison to the people within the new culture. People loose what is familiar and normal to them and may experience the cultural shock.

The first stage of cultural shock is excitement. I was very excited when I landed in Australia because I landed in Cairns and had the opportunity to dive the Great Barrier Reef, play with kangaroos, koalas, wallabies, and ATV through the jungle. I was then headed for Coffs Harbour to work with dolphins and seals, which is something not many people get to do. This was my honeymoon stage because everything was so new and exciting. This is the stage where most employees feel a sense of excitement for new opportunities to work and new steps in there career. 

The Journey- My Very Long Plane Ride

The Journey

I started my journey to Australia in Philly, where I met up with my best friend Julia. From there we traveled to Los Angelas. The flight was about seven hours and we forced out selves to stay up through it. We watched movies and played some games. It was important that we didn't fall asleep until we got on to our next flight because we knew the jet lag would be a lot worse. We managed to stay wake though. I ended up watching the Fox and the Hound. It was sad but as usual a Disney classic and very good

Navigation through the LA airport was a bit complicated. Many of the people were rude or just did not care which made finding the next terminal hard. We ended up having to take a bus shuttle to a separate building and then found our way to the gate. We looked around and had dinner at Chillies. We got the queso dip, which is one of my favorites, and split chicken fajitas. After dinner, we went to the gate and sat down.

Other intern abroad students recognized the GlobaLinks tag on our carry on and we were able to introduce our selves before the flight. Everyone seemed excited and nervous at the same time.

The flight from LA to Brisbane was 14 hours. This wasn't so bad because unit was night time already and we could finally fall asleep. They actually fed us too and I mean really good food. For dinner, I had chicken and vegetables, a salad, a biscuit, apple juice, chocolate, tiramisu dessert, and teas. Then we received a refresher package, which included water, a bag of potato chips, a chocolate bar, and a fig bar. For breakfast, we had mushroom egg omelet with tomatoes and spinach, a fig muffin, tea, fruit, and yogurt. Not only did the plane have good food but also each seat had a built in TV in the headrest and showed premium movies. I could watch anything I wanted for free. The movies were all new releases too. I ended up watching The Watch and a movie about biking. They even gave us a blanket, pillow, eye mask, toothbrush, toothpaste, and headphones. This plane came with everything and the staff was super sweet. Even with all the luxury, sleeping was difficult. I closed my eyes and tied to keep them closed but a good sleep was out of the question.

For breakfast, I had mushroom spinach eggs, fruit, granola, tea, apple juice, and a fig muffin. All of which was good. I was ready to land though and be back on land. Once we landed in Brisbane we had an hour wait for our next flight which was taking all 9 interns to Cairns. This flight was about 3 hours. Julia and I sat next to each other and watched movies and played games.

When we landed I went to the currency desk to exchange money. The American dollar is very weak compared to the Australian dollar which meant I ended up with less money than when I started. After I exchanged my money all the interns picked up their bags and met up with Ross our tour guide. Mentor for the week. We then headed off to Gilligans Back Packers Hotel.

Goals to Accomplish During My Internship

My Goals- Personal and Professional:

My main goal is to learn the processes that contribute to a successful marine park. I hope to gain insight into running a facility, along with caring for the animals and maintaining enclosures. I am also interested in learning the different behaviors that marine mammals exhibit and the way in which they adapt to living in the facility. I am excited to observe the training of dolphins by means of reinforcement, bridges, discriminative stimulus, and least reinforcing stimulus. Dolphin training is one of the many skills I hope to acquire from working with the marine trainers.

While I love learning and acquiring new skills in my field, I find it much more fulfilling to share the knowledge with others. I would like raise awareness on environmental issues in my community and instruct others on how to improve the conditions of our oceans and the surrounding areas. Through my internship, I hope to share my passion for marine life with visitors and inspire them to become not only more aware of marine life but more active in the preservation of our oceans and its inhabitants.

Another goal of mine is to network. Through networking, I will meet others who share my enthusiasm for marine life. I hope to meet as many people in the field as possible—people that I can both learn from and teach. Since these new people will be potential business partners, I look forward to the opportunity to share ideas.

Lastly, I would like to experience personally the cultural differences between Americans and Australians. As an American, I automatically picture the stereotypical “Aussie.” Do they really eat shrimp on the “Barbie”? Do they all act like crocodile Dundee or Steve Irwin? Probably not. After doing a little research, I discovered that Australians work to live, while Americans live to work. Their cuisine is also quite different from that of Americans. They enjoy a paste made from yeast extract called vegemite, and I am excited to try it on my toast. Aussie lingo and conversational mannerisms are also very different from American culture. Certain words in the American language that are hurtful or rude are considered playful slang terms in Australian culture. These are just a few differences in the culture, and I am sure I will experience many more. Adjusting to these cultural differences may prove challenging, but I look forward to immersing myself in a new culture. My internship abroad is not only a learning experience advantageous to my career path, but a worthwhile opportunity contributing to my inner growth.

Dress Code

What will I be wearing?

The dress code at Dolphin Marine Magic entails wearing comfortable sneakers or water shoes. I went out and bought new sneakers and yes I bought crocs. My supervisor suggested crocs and I was skeptical at first because they aren't exactly the most appealing shoe. They are pretty comfortable though and have a roomy fit. I also bought button accessories that pop into the holes of the shoe. The buttons include an anchor, octopus, clam, angler-fish  dolphin, and puffer fish. Yes, you can call me a dork, but the little sea creatures make me smile when I look down.

Croc Ocean Charms

Dolphin Marine Magic provides uniform consisting of a hat, shirt, and jumper. I provide my own shorts and pants and they have to be blue or black. I went and bought old navy shorts in the 5" and 7" length. Though it's winter here in Jersey, in Australia it's summer time and the temps are in the 80's. 

I also need to bring bathing-suits for when I interact with the dolphins. This part of the job is truly exciting because It's not everyday you get the chance to work with Dolphins.  

This is going to be a dirty job since it's more than likely that my clothes will become wet and soiled, so packing enough shorts and bathing suits is essential!

Duties as an Intern

My Job Description

My usual work day at Dolphin Marine Magic will be from 7:30 to 4:00. During my internship, my duties will include assisting with food preparation and animal feeding; cleaning food buckets, the fish kitchen, and enclosures; and assisting guests in show participation. 

In the morning, my duties will include assisting photographers and the marine staff and trainers in the fish kitchen. My mid-day duties will include preparing reef tank and penguin feedings, feeding the fresh and saltwater turtles, washing and emptying fish buckets and pouches, assisting with crowd control for kissing and feeding interactions and during shows, and cleaning. My afternoon duties will include assisting trainers with training, weighing seals, and other odd jobs. I will also assist with the feeding and walking of animals while supervised. 

When first placed at the Dolphin Marine Magic, my expectations mostly included working with the animals. While I intend to execute my other duties around the park with enthusiasm, I am most excited to work with marine specialists. Melinda Bathgate, my host advisor, has confirmed that I will be working mainly with the trainers in the marine department. Because the park is so small, Melinda says that I will be seeing my fair share of animals.

 It is my hope that by learning the processes conducive to a successful marine park, I will be better equipped to build new programs and facilities in my community.

My Internship Site

Dolphin Marine Magic

I leave for Australia in 6 days. I will be interning there for ten weeks at Dolphin Marine Magic as a Marine Mammal Trainers Assistant. I am extremely excited for this experience and the opportunities that may arise from it.

About Dolphin Marine Magic:

Dolphin Marine Magic is located in Australia’s Coffs Harbour and is a major tourist destination. Many visitors fly in from Sydney because the travel time is relatively short, and the airport is close in proximity. 

Hec Goodall founded Dolphin Marine Magic, originally called Pet Porpoise Pool. The facility opened on Boxing Day in 1970, with its main purpose being the rescue and rehabilitation of marine mammals. The facility has since become a permanent home for mammals with severe injuries and mammals unable to be released back into the wild. 

Today, the facility still focuses on rescuing and rehabilitating marine mammals, but a tourist element is now included—the animals being cared for are displayed to the public. Displays include bottle nose dolphins, New Zealand fur seals, endangered Australian sea lions, little blue penguins, sea turtles, both short neck and Eastern long neck freshwater turtles. Dolphins are among the many animals that have been trained to do tricks. Remaining true to their slogan “be touched by magic,” the park even offers guests the opportunity to be kissed by a dolphin or seal. Perhaps most notably, Dolphin Marine Magic is one of only two facilities in Australia that display cetaceans, making it a great tourist destination.

Check out their website:
Dolphin Marine Magic

Hatchetfish

Hatchetfish: 

The series Blue Planet featured a segment on the deep sea. The film focused on how fish use bioluminescence, navigate within the twilight zone and the deep abyss, and find food and mates when resources are limited. The film also featured hatchetfish, which are very interesting creatures.

Hatchetfish belong to the family Sternoptychidae. Forty-five known species of Hatchetfish have been discovered thus far. The size of the species varies but on average, the Hatchetfish is no bigger than 10 centimeters. They can be found in warm temperate waters at depths of 200 to 1000 meters.

The Hatchetfish received its name because their body shape is similar to that of a hatchet. The body of the Hatchetfish is flat and compressed with shiny mirror-like sides. The mirror-like sides manipulate light particles that have reached the depths. The reflected light makes the Hatchetfish disappear in the deep abyss by making it appear dark in coloration.

The eyes of the Hatchetfish face upward so that glimpse of light can be utilized to find potential prey items like plankton and crustaceans. The technique the Hatchetfish employ to find food is similar to techniques exploited by its predators. Hatchetfish have photophores and bioluminescent organs that line the ventral side of its body in order to defend themselves from predators looking up at their silhouette. The photophores contain a chemical called luciferin that produces ultraviolet light. The light produced breaks up the silhouette of the Hatchetfish by making the ventral side have a similar brightness to the light particles that have reached the depths. The Hatchetfish is able to control the amount of light given off by its body depending on the amount of light being emitted by the environment around it. This technique is called counter illumination.

The Hatchetfish uses strategies such as a mirror like bodies, counter illumination in order to remain concealed from predators, and had large eyes that face upward in order to find prey. These strategies have allowed the Hatchetfish to survive in the deep-sea.

Work Cited
"BBC - Science & Nature - Sea Life - Fact Files." BBC - Homepage. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. < http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/blueplanet/factfiles/fish/hatchetfish_bg.shtml>.
Mensinger, A.F. "THE SKIN | Bioluminescence in Fishes." ScienceDirect. Ezproxy, 2011. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.stockton.edu:2048/science/article/pii/B978012374553800160X>.

Underwater Archeology of the Atocha

Nuestra Señora de Atocha 

Abstract 

The Atocha was a Spanish Galleon that sailed under King Philip the IV rule. The ship collected silver bars and coins to fund the 30- year war and to keep Spain as a dominant European power. In 1622, a hurricane storm off the coast of Florida sunk the Atocha. Nunez Melian attempted to salvage valuables from the Atocha, but few things were recovered. Mel Fisher did not recover the Atocha until 1971, which resulted in legal litigations between the state of Florida and the Mel Fisher salvage team. The issue in question was who owned the title to the Atocha and the artifacts found. The court ruled that the Atocha belonged to Mel Fishers and his team. The team took precautions and carefully searched, surveyed, mapped, excavated, preserved and conserved many of the artifacts recovered on the ship. The ships contents have been studied including the remains of a lizard that may be a close relative to the Cuban brown anole. Mel Fisher later opened a museum where the Atocha and all of her contents are on display. 

Synopsis of Paper

The Nuestra Señora de Atocha, was a Spanish Galleon that sailed the western hemisphere in 1622 (figure 1). That year she sunk, carrying 47 tons of silver and gold to the bottom of the sea floor. The gold and silver the Atocha carried came from the Podessa Mountain in South America. On the Podessa Mountain, the habitants had their own mint and made coins out of the silver that was harvested from the mountain. They measured the coins to weigh one ounce, the equivalence of about one dollar. Silver bars weighting eight-five pounds were also made. Spain sent the Atocha and twenty-seven other ships to collect the coins and bars made from the Americas twice a year. Together the twenty-eight ships made up the Tierra Ferma Fleet. Of these twenty- eight ships, three carried the bulk of the treasure; The Atocha being one of them carried these riches back to Spain (Clyne 2010). 

Once the coins and bars were loaded onto the ships, the fleet would move from Podessa Mountain to Cuba Havanah Port, and then to the Florida Straight. Tierra Ferma Fleet took this course of direction because the Gulf Stream current is strong enough to push them to their next stop. However, in times of hurricane the Gulf Stream can be very hazardous. The Gulf Stream can reach 30 to 120 knots and have 40 to 60 foot seas in times of hurricane. In 1622, hurricane conditions in the Gulf Stream sunk the Atocha (Clyne 2010).

The current grew stronger and the waves grew taller in the ocean making deck life very dangerous for the crew because a surge could sweep across the deck of the ship. Many shipmates tried to go below deck of the ship to ensure their safety. However, there was not enough room below the Atocha for the 387 passengers (Stall, 1986) because the cargo of silver bars and coins took up much of the space.

People decided to move to the highest part of the boat, the stern castle. Waves crushed and swept crewmembers off the ship as roped and masts fell. The ship lost control and came too close to a reef. As the ship hit the reef, the rudder broke off. Crewmembers tried to drop the seventeen-foot long anchor to help slow the ship down, but the line snapped in half (Clyne 2010).

Waves pushed the Atocha back into coral reef and she hit again with the nose of the ship. The galleon began to take on water and when the second wave hit the Atocha went straight down to the bottom (Clyne 2010).

At a distance, the rest of the Tierre Firme Fleet watched as a lantern on the Atocha sunk into the sea. Soon after the Atocha sank, the Santa Margarita went down. In the hurricane storm, six ships were lost out of the twenty-eight that had made the journey (Clyne 2010).

A salvage effort went out to recover any remains of the Atocha. The salvagers found five people hanging on the ships mast that was sticking out of the water. The five survivors hung on the mast for five days before they were found. In order to survive they caught seagulls to eat (Clyne 2010).

The Spanish king sent pearl divers from the Island Migrate to see what could be salvaged from the wreck (Clyne 2010). They found that the ship was intact but all the hatches were battened. They were only able to recover two bronze canyons (Garabello 2003). The hatches were battened during the storm to protect the crewmembers, but were unable to be opened once the ship sunk (Clyne 2010). The pearl divers left the site to retrieve their tools so they could enter the ship and salvage the riches. They left buoys at the site in order to find the Atocha’s location (Clyne 2010). When they were gone, another hurricane hit and the buoys and the Atocha were lost. They set up a bass camp and searched for the Atocha everyday for fifty years (Clyne 2010).

In 1971, Mel Fisher and his salvage group recovered the Atocha in shallow waters off the coast of Florida. The water was relatively shallow and ship was covered in sand, mud, and grass but Mel Fisher and his team were able to recover and document the Atocha and her riches (Clyne 2010).

Why Resource is Important or of Historical Significance

The Atocha was built in Havana, Cuba as a treasure galleon and was a part of an annual fleet from Spain to the Americas (Saunders 2005).This Spanish ship was extremely important to Spanish history because it carried good that Spain desperately needed to fund the 30- year war (Greenberg 2010).

In 1492, Spain became one of the most powerful nations in Europe after she discovered the new world and its riches. Spain was able to expand their empire to the Americas and become a dominant power in the European world. In order to stay in power Spain needed to protect her new founded western hemisphere. Spain did this by taxing goods sent to the other European countries (Mathewson 1986).

Spain not only received money from the new tax but also from the Spanish American who harvested goods from agriculture, metals, and gems (Mathewson 1986).

As Spain became a more dominant figure, she began to take on European adventures. In 1621, 16-year-old Philip IV became king (figure 2). He controlled territories on four continents and led a mission to wipe out Protestantism and make Catholicism the dominant religion. These adventures created a huge debt that was paid for by the trade with the Indies and the tax on goods (Mathewson 1986).

European nations began to challenge Spain. The Dutch attacked Spanish cargo ships, while the English and French challenged Spain’s claim to the new world. Other challenges that plagued Spain were Spanish merchants who began to smuggle goods and take bribes to avoid paying the 20% tax. This caused Spain to lose funds (Mathewson 1986).

In order to avoid revenue losses Spain established a regulatory agency in 1503 called the Casa de Contrastacion. The Casa de Contrastacion oversaw the finances and the navigation of ships. The agency put a clerk on each ship that had to maintain records of all cargo loaded and unloaded. In 1510, Spain also enacted a law that said if a smuggler were caught, they would have to forfeit their contraband and pay a fine four times its value. This kept merchants and other crewmembers from smuggling any good on the ship (Mathewson 1986).

Spain also decided that all ships would have to sail in convoys to avoid and protect against Dutch attacks. This meant that warships known as galleons escorted all merchant ships. In addition, two strong galleons are chosen, where one is the captina, which leads the convoy, and the other is the almiranta, which covers the rear of the convoy and protected against raiders (Mathewson 1986).

Each Spanish fleet sailed to a specific location. The Atocha was a part of the Tierra Firma fleet and her orders were too load silver and gold from Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia at ports in Portobello and Cartagena. The ship would then go to Havana, Cuba where it was loaded with Copper from the King’s mines. The galleons carried the bulk of the gold and silver while the merchant ships carried agricultural goods. It was very important that all of the gold and silver make it back to Spain in 1622 because the Royal Treasury was running low on funds and needed more money for the war (Mathewson 1986).

Spain would have to be patient because the fleet could not leave until late spring or early summer because hurricanes fill the waters in the late summer making voyages very dangerous. The Tierra Firma Fleet started their voyage on March 23, 1622. They traveled to Portobello in Panama, Cartagena in Colombia and the island of Dominica (figure 3). During the fleets travels 36 Dutch Warships were at the Araya saltpans on the North Coast of South America awaiting the arrival of the Spanish fleet so they could attack. Marquis of Cadereita, the commander of the Guard fleet heard the news and led the fleet to Cuba on August 3 for protection. The fleet however did not arrive in Havana until August 22 making them 6 weeks behind schedule and in the midst of hurricane season (Mathewson 1986).

Marquis decided to split the fleet into two parts, and put one and a half million pesos worth of treasure into the Atocha. He then assigned the Atocha to be the Almiranta and sail last to protect the merchant ships. The fleet left September 5 in hopes of shaking the Dutch war ships and being out of hurricanes reaches. The fleets’ goal was to make it back to Spain with riches to fund the war and put Spain back on her feet (Mathewson 1986).

This was not the case and the Atocha along with many other ships in the Tierra Firma Fleet perished. Spain took a huge financial hit with the loss of the fleet and all of her goods. In order to keep war efforts ongoing Spain had to borrow more money from bankers and sell several galleons to raise funds. The Spanish authorities needed the goods on the Atocha so they sent out five ships to salvage the cargo and guns. A second hurricane squashed the salvage attempt as it came through and scattered the wreck. If the Atocha was not salvaged all of the silver and gold on the Atocha would never be shipped to Spain or used to finance the 30-year war (Mathewson 1986).

This loss was not acceptable and in 1624, Spain granted a contract to Nunez Melian to salvage the Atocha (figure 4). He planned to use a 680-pound copper diving bell cast to search for the silver bars and coins from the Atocha. His plan paid off because Juan Banon spotted the wreck through the bell’s window, however the wreck they had found was the Santa Margarita the Atocha’s sister ship. News of the ships finds spread throughout Europe. The Dutch sent ships to the Caribbean in order to interrupt Melians work and collect some of the money so Spain could not get it. With the interruptions, Melian and his men were still able to recover 380 silver ingots, 67000 silver coins, and eight bronze cannons (Mathewson 1986).

Melians survey however failed to find the Atocha’s riches, which left Spain with little fortune and more debt. Spain was unable to finance the war and slowly lost land in the Americas to the English, Dutch, and French. If the Atocha did not sink in the hurricane and had made it to Spain, the conclusion of the 30-year war may have ended differently, with Spain being on top and acting as the dominant figure throughout Europe and the Americas (Mathewson 1986).

Legal Aspects

Mel Fisher and his team were the finders of the Atocha and spent over $7 million dollars in the salvaging operations of her recovery. Mel Fisher believed that Spain abandoned the ship and as the finder would receive ownership of the Atocha and all of her possessions. The United States however claimed that the ship and her contents were in state territory and therefore belonged to the state and not the finders. Since Florida State believed they owned the artifacts found, they took many of the items salvaged by Mel Fisher and placed state agents on board Mel Fisher’s boat to ensure that he and his crew were not keeping any of the riches (Garabello 2003).

United States District Court for Southern District of Florida took on this case of ownership. On February 3, 1976, the court found that the title of the ship and her contents belonged to the finder of the wreck. The decision was confirmed on March 13, 1978 by the United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, where they concluded that the ship belong to Mel Fisher based on the Law of Finds. The Law of Finds states that if the property is abounded the title goes to the finder or salver as long as the salver exercises due diligence. However, if the property is embedded in the subsoil it belongs to the landowner. The United States then claimed that no marine peril existed in regards to the Atocha and that the application of salvage by Mel Fisher and his team did not exist. The court said marine peril not only includes threats from storms, fire, or piracy, but also includes the loss of the vessel. Since the Atocha had been lost, Mel Fisher and his team had the right to find her and salvage her (Garabello 2003).

The Division of Archives of the State of Florida removed many artifacts from Mel Fisher, and he sought restitution. The finders had made a contract with the State of Florida that stated that 75% of the total appraised value of all materials recovered belonged to them, while the other 25% of valued materials went to the state. Mel Fisher’s group and Florida made this contract under the belief that Florida had owned the territory where the Atocha was found. This was not the case and in 1975, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the part of the continental shelf that the Atocha laid on was never owned by the State of Florida. This ruling meant that the contract between Mel Fisher and the State of Florida was invalid and that all of the appraised value of all the material belonged to the finder. Florida was wrongfully withholding artifacts of the Atocha and had to return them to Mel Fisher and his team. The United States of Appeals, Fifth Circuit in July 24, 1980 and the United States Supreme Court July 1, 1982 yet again confirmed the decision (Garabello 2003).

Another case was legated between Treasure Salvors, Inc., and Armada Research Corp. and a different salver out of Key West. Both groups competed to salvage the ship and the artifacts and believed that only one team had the right to. The Untied States District Court, Southern District of Florida ruled on July 2, 1981 that permanent harm and injury would be caused to the ship if other salvers were permitted to salvage through the Atocha. They also believed that Treasure Salvors, Inc., and Armada Research Corp. had exercised due diligence by making archeological and historical efforts in order to preserve the site of the wreck. The district court prohibited competing salvers from interfering with the activities of the Treasure Salvors, Inc., and Armada Research Corp. Competing salvers were not allowed within a 13.3 square mile radius of the wreck site (Garabello 2003). This meant that Mel Fisher and his team could continue the salvage effort without interruptions.

Research Accomplished Prior To Resource Location

The Atocha was a known ship, but her whereabouts was unknown. Documents that described this particular wreck were needed in order to determine the location of the ship. The documents needed to include a general location so that electronic or visual surveys could be used to locate the ship and her contents.

The person in charge of doing the research on the Atocha’s whereabouts was Eugene Lyon, a researcher who worked for Mel Fisher. In order to start his research in 1969 he went to Seville, Spain and searched in the Archives of the Indies, where records of the Atocha had been compiled (figure 6). In these archives he found the Atocha’s manifest, construction records, a description of her armaments, a list of her casualties, and records from the Spanish attempts to recover the Atocha's treasure over a period of 60 years (Lyon 1987).

His main goal however was to find the location of the Atocha. Treasure hunters who started to gather information on the Atocha believed that she was located in the upper and lower Matecumbe of the Central Keys. In Lyons research he too found that the location “cayos de Matecumbe” was a term used a lot in texts. However he found another locations that was used in the text that referenced “cayos de Marquez” named for the Marquis. He did a map comparison and believed that the text was actually talking about the Modern Marquesas Keys. Further research gave descriptions of salvage attempts done by the Spaniards from 1622 to 1679. These salvagers believed that the lower hull of the Atocha lay in a depth of 54 feet, like the depth it had originally sunk in (Lyon 1987). Unlike other treasure hunters who believe the Atocha would be found in Matecumbe, Lyon believed that the location of the Atocha would be found in the shallow waters in the Modern Marquesas Keys.

Lyons told Mel Fisher his hypothesis and Fisher moved his operation from the central Florida Keys to the Marquesas in 1970. After the change in location, Fisher started to find evidence of a ship. He had pulled up an anchor and many other artifacts giving evidence that there was a ship down on the bottom. However, the question remained if the items salvaged belonged to the Atocha (Lyon 1987).

The next step was to determine if the ship Mel Fisher had found was in fact the Atocha, and not another ship that had sunk there. Coins found on the site were dated 1622, which was the year the Atocha sunk. The coins only gave a general sense that the ship was the Atocha since she sailed in 1622, but more research had to be done to conclude that the ship found was actually the Atocha. Muskets, swords, daggers, and quartzite stone cannonballs were recovered on the site and research found that the artifacts were identical to those listed on the arms list of the Atocha (Lyon 1987).

Lyons found documents that explained that ingots were shipped tied to discrete numerical series of their casts. He also found that each bar had a serial numbers cut into it. So in 1973 when three silver ingots were found their serial numbers were compared to the logs on the Atocha ship records. He found that one of the bars found had a multipoint match to the manifest data. The serial number and ley number on the bar found was a direct match to one of the bars on the manifest records (Lyon 1987).

In 1975, nine bronze cannons were found and Lyon compared them to the ships documents. In the documents, a weight number cast listed each cannon and when compared to the cannons he found that the markings matched the weight numbers perfectly (figure 7). This gave further evidence that the cannons belonged to the Atocha and that the ship they found was the Atocha. (Lyon 1987).

Lyons research led Mel Fisher to the Atocha site. His research also made it possible to identify artifact found at the site to be from the Atocha by comparing the artifacts to cargo logs kept on the Atocha that were found in the Archives of the Indies.

Search Techniques/ Equipment Used

The search team for the Atocha used side scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, magnetometer and metal detector in order to find the location of the sunken galleon.

The side scan sonar is an acoustic equipment that has long range and excellent coverage. It is able to detect and discriminate between targets very well and has a moderate cost to purchase and survey. That is why it is one of the most widely used pieces of equipment used to identify things underwater.

The side scan sonar works by creating an image of the sea floor by measuring the strength of the echo it sends out. It then takes the data collected and puts it together to form a picture. Soft areas on the sea floor absorb more sound and therefore giver a softer and lower return signal than a harder area would. In the picture, the softer areas would be lighter then the harder areas as well. The side scan sonar can also pick up shadows in the picture; this is because objects that rise above the sea floor create shadows where no sound is able to hit. The shadow formed in the picture can be used to determine the objects size (NOAA 2008).

Multi-beam echo sounder was also used to search for the Atocha. It is also an acoustic instrument and has medium range and very good coverage. It is very good at detecting a target but is average at discriminating what the target is. It is also very expensive to buy and use to survey.

The multi-beam echo sounder works by measuring the depth of the sea floor. It does this by measuring the length of time it takes for the sound to travel from the boat to the sea floor and back. It takes the data collected and creates a rainbow colored image of the seafloor. The red in the image shoes shallow depths where as blue and purple show deeper depths (NOAA 2008). This means that if an image is showing blue, purple, and something red is seen it may be an object on the sea floor.

Crewmembers used a magnetometer during the search of the Atocha. It is an electromagnetic instrument has medium ranger and very good coverage. It is also able to see buried targets. Its detection is very good but its decimation is poor. Its cost to buy and cost to survey is moderate. In the ocean magnetometer are used to detect the variation in magnetic field of the underlying sea floor.

A metal detector was also used to search for items on specific parts of the seafloor. Metal detectors are electromagnetic equipment and have an ultra short range and very poor coverage. They are able to find buried targets and have very good detection but average discrimination. They also are inexpensive to buy, but very expensive to survey. These were used in areas where artifacts have already been found and are able to search and find things in these areas more easily.

Using this equipment 125000 square linear miles were covered and mapped out trying to find the Atocha. This took a long time because a technique called mowing the lawn was used. A grid type system is used where the boat follows an imaginary line while the side scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounder and magnetometer collect data from the ground below. After the ship has traveled down all the lines, the images are compiled from all the different equipment and then compared to see if any objects were found on the seafloor. In the case of the Atocha, they were able to find the one Spanish galleon anchor based on a peg hit from the magnetometer (Clyne 2010).

Survey Techniques/ Mapping Description

When instruments like the side scan sonar, multi beam echo sounder, magnetometer and metal detector register a hit or show that an object is on the floor bed and could be a ship or artifacts of a ship divers go down to investigate. When the Spanish galleon anchor was discovered using the magnetometer, Don Kincaid, a diver and photographer, was sent down to survey the area and he found a seven foot gold chain under one of the anchors flukes. These finding led to further surveying and mapping of the site Clyne 2010).

Divers begin to survey the site by hand and building a PVC grid system. The grid systems can be different sized depending on the amount of space needed to cover. A cage camera takes pictures of the entire grid at each section making sure there is a 30-degree overlap between the photos. This allows the entire site to be mapped out using the pictures from the grid systems to form a collage type map.

Trilateration is another technique that was used on the Atocha site. This method determines the relative location of an object by measuring the distance from points using the geometry of spheres or triangles. At the Atocha site, over 20 datum points were placed in the grid. One datum point was placed at the anchor site that was found during the search for the Atocha. The datum is the center of the site where most of the artifacts are located. At the Atocha site, the distance was measured between many of the datum points to give a relative scale of the distances between objects found on the seafloor (Wilson 2010).

A barring circle was then made around the datums to find artifacts. Once an artifact was found the range, distance and bearing of where it was found was collected by measuring two or three spots on each artifact to three datum points. The dimensions of the artifact were then recorded. In order to do this the artifact were trilaterated at each end from nearby datum points and the length, width, height of the artifact were recorded. Finally, dive computers determine the depth of where the artifact was found. All of this data was then entered into a computer to generate a three dimensional map of all the artifacts found and where specifically they were found on the Atocha site (Wilson 2010).

When an artifact was found underwater, it was given a float that had a number on it that told the number of the artifact. This made it easier to catalog artifacts that had been found and map them.

These techniques are very important to follow through on because they lead to the findings of other artifacts on the site. Once the anchor was found, a grid system was set up around it and search within the barring circle was made. Dirk fisher was able to find a bronze astrolabe from the site. This piece was useful to the Spanish sailor because it determined their location on the sea. Kim Fisher was also able to locate a gold poison cup, which was said to absorb poison so the King would not die. Dirk Fisher also discovered five bronze cannons. When these were found, a photo grid was placed over them and pictures were taken so their location would be documented. More artifacts like these were found and mapped based on the grid system.

Excavation/ Resources and Artifact Recovery

The excavation of the Atocha site included the use of the mailbox, which was invented by Mel Fisher. It was a large elbow-shaped pipe that was made to swing into place. The mailbox was made of an aluminum shaped tube that had a 90-degree elbow. When the mailbox was lowered over the propeller, it would deflect the prop wash down to the bottom (figure 9). When the mailbox was in use, a diver would be at the bottom while someone on the ship throttles the engine to increase the prop’s rpm. This pushed the clear water from the surface toward the bottom, which allowed visibility to increase. The mailbox also allowed large amount of sand to be moved which meant hand fanning would not be needed as often. Hand fanning was also used on the Atocha site. This is where the hand is waved back and forth to fan away sand around an object. The mailbox proved to be the best option (Clyne 2010). The first time the mailbox was, used 1,033 gold coins (McHauley).

The mailbox was also used when Dirk Fisher first discovered the five bronze cannons. Sand and mud had to be removed from the cannons so that they could be recovered. The mailbox was used and pushed all the debris off of the cannons and uncovered four more cannons that were not originally seen. The total number of bronze cannons discovered was nine (Clyne 2010).

The Hydro- Flow was also used to excavate the site and works very much like the mailbox. A very large sump pump can be raised in and out of the water hydraulically. It works the same as a mail box in that is moves sand or mud away from the artifact by pumping air out, but it can be used in the water closer to the excavation site (Clyne 2010).

Another tool that was used to excavate the Atocha was the airlift. It can be made out of PVC or aluminum pipe and is hooked to a suitable compressor, which allows it to move large amounts of sand. A vacuum effect occurs and causes sand to be sucked into the pipe. The excavator uses this to remove unwanted sand and search for embedded artifacts. At the Atocha site, divers using the airlift were able to uncover pockets of uncut emeralds (Clyne 2010).

When the emeralds were found Mel Fisher decided to add an attachment to the airlift. He added and extension to the tube so that the air lifts would be connected to a large box on the deck of the boat. When sand was sucked into the airlift, it would be placed on the boat where people could sift through the sand and recover emeralds that may have been lost (Clyne 2010).

Once an artifact was found on the Atocha site using one of the methods it was recovered and sent to the surface. Small delicate objects like coins and chains were sometimes hand carried to the surface when there were only a few items. When a large amount of artifacts were, found containers were used to bring the artifacts to the surface. In the case of the Atocha, milk crates were mainly used. When larger items were found on the site lift bags were used. When the nine cannons were found at the Atocha site, large lift bags were used to bring the cannons to the surface.

Conservation/Preservation

Duncan Mathewson, Mel Fisher’s chief archaeologist made sure that all artifacts excavated were preserved and conserved. Once an artifact was taken out of the water precautions were taken to make sure the object would not dry out. All objects were soaked in water until they were preserved.

The preservation of metals was very important since most of the cargo on the Atocha consisted of gold and silver. First, the artifact was stored in a neutral pH bath of fresh water. The artifact was then cleaned and the corrosion was reduced by using low amperage electrolysis. The chloride content was then tested. If all the chloride was eliminated the artifact was then placed in a wash with distilled water and baking soda. The artifact was then dehydrated in an oven at 350 degrees Fahrenheit for 24 hrs to 48 hrs. After this a wax layer or shellac is applied to the artifact to protect it (figure 10).

Pottery storage jars were also found on the Atocha. In order to preserve these jars they are placed in a bath where the salinity is slowly reduced to zero. The concentration is carefully removed and a stain remover is added to the bath of necessary. The artifact is then placed into a desalination bath of distilled water to remove all of the chloride. The step can last as long as 120 days. The next step is to dehydrate the artifact in air or a drying oven. Fragile items may need to be consolidated by being soaked in a mixture of special glue. The glue is able to penetrate the surface of the artifact and provides support. Many of the jars are not recovered completely and are found shattered. All of the shattered pieces are put back together again to form the jar. All of the artifacts are also catalogued. Photographers took pictures of each artifact. A computer-scanned the coins found on the Atocha site and kept a detail description of what was found. Artists also drew pictures of many of the artifacts. Captain Syd Jones and his wife K.T., were a few of the artists that sketched the artifacts recovered. When they drew the artifacts, they placed them in the relative location they would be found based on timber placement of the hull. This would allow the drawings to be exact based on where the artifact was found on the Atocha site. All of this cataloguing kept a thorough log of all the artifacts found on the Atocha site and the condition of which they were found (Clyne 2010).
Conservation for the Atocha still continues at the Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society. The laboratory consists of two thousand square feet and contains 100,000 artifacts that have been recovered from the Atocha or have been donated from other expeditions. In order to conserve the artifacts one they have been preserved environmental conditions such as temperature, and humidity, light in the gallery are adjusted to keep the artifact in optimum condition. The artifacts are also issued a Mel Fisher Certificate of Authenticity so that it is known that the artifact went under strict preservation and conservation.

Study/ Exhibition

A topic of research being studied on the Atocha is a well-preserved anole or lizard that was recovered. In 1986, excavation of the galleons bilge turned up a small clump that was very hard. At first, the clump was thought to be the remains of a bag with its contents. However, study in the lab determined the clump to be something very different. As the outer layers of the clump were removed, a lizard like figure began to take shape. The lizard was dried out but had a similar appearance to lizards that are found in south Florida and the Caribbean (Malcom 2005).

Dr. Kenneth Krysko, senior biological scientist with the Division of Herpetology, was called in to further study the lizard in 2004. He believes that the lizard was preserved so well in the water because it died before the Atocha sank. The lizard was so well preserved that its skin, claws and teeth are intact. He found that the lizard was 4 centimeters from its nose to the tip of its tail. A closer look at the lizards tow pads made Dr, Krysko sure that is was not a gecko. This is because geckos toe pads are expanded; where as the lizard on the Atocha had narrow toe pads (Malcom 2005).

The lizard also had characteristics of species found in the genus Anolis because its teeth were tri-cusped near the back of the jaw. Closer look at the skin showed a brown coloration, which is also characteristic of anoles. Documents also show evidence that the Atocha last stop was Havana, which is home to the Cuban Brown Anole. This evidence strongly supports that the lizard found on the Atocha is a Cuban Brown Anole (Malcom 2005).

Before this find, the earliest document of the Cuban Brown Anole was in 1877 in Key West, Florida. This means that the Atocha may have played a role in transporting creatures from Havanah to Florida. The Atocha may have even transported creatures from the Americas to Europe (Malcom 2005).

The lizard that was found on the Atocha can be found at The Mel Fisher Maritime Museum in Key Largo, Florida. The museum is located in Key West, and was originally used as a place to brainstorm about the whereabouts of the Atocha. Today the museum holds items recovered from the Spanish galleon and carries out conservations and preservation efforts of many of the artifact. Other exhibits found in the museum include material such as gold bars and silver ingots. It offers authentic coins and artifacts. (Garabello).

Who is Mel Fisher?

Mel fisher was born August 21, 1922 in Hobart, Indiana. As a child, he was an avid reader and always had an interest in the water and treasure. He had many other talents though. For instance, he learned carpentry from his father and had musical and dance talents from his mother. He was able to play the saxophone and formed his first dance band while attending Lew Wallace High School (McHaley).

He went to Purdue University to study engineering and went to the University of Alabama where he was awarded an honorary doctorate. During World War II, he was recruited into the Army Corps of Engineers. When he returned from the war, he and his family moved to Torrance, California where he studied animal husbandry at El Camino College and became a chicken farmer. In California, he met Dolores Horton, who became his wife in 1953. She was from Montana and never before had been into the ocean (McHaley).

Around the time he married his wife, Jacques Cousteau developed a device called the Aqua Lung. The device was made of a steel cylinder that was carried on the divers back and supplied air through a mouthpiece. This was the invention of SCUBA, and Mel fisher decided to bring it to California. He bought the air compressor, scuba tanks, and made his own dive gear. This would be the start of his new career. Mel Fisher and his wife built a dive shop in Redondo Beach, California and named it Mel’s Aqua Shop. They gave scuba lessons and took divers to shipwreck sites and underwater expeditions (McHaley).

Mel Fisher wanted to document what he saw under the sea. In order to this he built and underwater housing for his 16mm Bell & Howell movie camera. He made mini films of their underwater adventures that were then featured on local television channels. Scuba began to become popular because of Mel Fisher and his wife. The two were featured in commercials for bathing suits, movies, and even TV shows. While he was doing that, Dolores was breaking records. She holds the women’s underwater endurance records of more than 55 hours and 37 minutes (Clyne 2010).

During this time, the Fishers were building a family. They had five kids named Terry, Dirk, Kim, Kane, and Taffi. All of their kids learned to swim and grew to love the water. They would become a crucial part to the salvage team (Clyne 2010).

Fishers’ family and business took time away from being in the water. This would soon change as another family in California discovered the remains of some Spanish galleons off Florida’s coast. This caught Mel Fisher’s eye because more ships that are valuable had yet to be discovered, one of which was the Atocha. Fisher and his family moved down to Sebastian, Florida in 1963 to meet up with Kip Wagner who had discovered many of the remains of the Spanish galleons. With them, they bought seven other people who agreed to also move to Florida and work for without pay for one year. This would be the start of a new adventure for the two and the search for the Atocha.

On July 10 1985, Mel Fisher located the Atocha’s mother lode. He found thousands of artifacts that he conserves, studies, restores, recorded, and then shared in exhibits, Mel’s Ship Museum and Mel fisher Maritime Heritage Society Museum. In the 1990’s the Mel Fisher Center, Inc. was opened in Sebastian, Florida and is used to conserve and exhibit many new discoveries (McHaley).

December 19, 1998 Mel Fisher died. His children still carry out expeditions. Taffi manages the Mel Fisher Center, Terry and Kane operate search and recovery vessels on the Atocha site, and Kim manages the worldwide traveling treasure exhibit (McHaley).


References:

Berg, Capt. Dan. "SHIPWRECK DIVING Shipwreck Excavation." Shipwrecks - Shipwreck
Expo Directory Capt. Dan Berg's Guide to World Wide Shipwreck Information. Web. 25
Apr. 2011. <http://www.shipwreckexpo.com/shipwreckdivingexcavation.htm>.
Clyne, Pat. The Atocha Odyssey. Terrell Pub, 2010. Print.
"Elementary Edu NOAA's National Ocean Service: Education." NOAA's National Ocean
Service. 25 Mar. 2008. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/seafloor-mapping/what_tools.html>.
Garabello, Roberta, and Tullio Scovazzi. The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage:
before and after the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Leiden: M. Nijhoff, 2003. Print. 

Lyon, Eugene. "What Documents Told - Blue Water Ventures." Santa Margarita Project - Blue
Water Ventures. 09 Jan. 1987. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.bwvkw.com/Research/WhatDocumentsTold.aspx>.
Malcom, Corey. "The Atocha Lizard." Melfisher. Navigator: Newsletter of the Mel Fisher
Maritime Heritage Society, Jan. 2005. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.melfisher.org/pdf/The-Atocha-Lizard.pdf>.
Mathewson, R. Duncan. "Atocha and Margarita Story." Mel Fisher's Treasures. Web. 25 Apr.
2011. <http://www.melfisher.com/Library/AtochaMargStory.asp>.
Mathewson, R. Duncan. "The Search Begins Story Of Mel Fisher." Atocha Treasure Company. Web. 25 Apr. 2011. < http://1622atocha.com/ >.
McHaley, Beth, and Wendy Tucker. "Tribute to Mel Fisher." Mel Fisher's Treasures. Web. 25
Apr. 2011. <http://www.melfisher.com/SalvageOperations/TributeToMel.asp>.
Saunders, Nicholas J. Peoples of the Caribbean: an Encyclopedia of Archeology and Traditional Culture. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print.
Stall, Sam. "TREASURES OF THE "ATOCHA." Saturday Evening Post 258.8 (1986): 50- 100. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. 

"Vignettes." Mel Fisher's Treasures. Web. 26 Apr. 2011. <http://www.melfisher.com/Library/Vignettes.asp>.
Wilson, William. "Underwater Archaeology in Key Largo, F." KSU Native: The Student Anthropology Club Newsletter. 2010. Web. 25 Apr. 2011. <http://clubs.kennesaw.edu/ksusac/newsletter/2010-summer.pdf>.

Benefits of the Stinging Jellyfish

Benefits of the Stinging Jellyfish 

The jellyfish has been around for more than 650 million years, predating both the dinosaurs and the sharks (“Jellyfish Facts”). These resilient creatures have remained unmatched throughout the years and have grown in numbers. Recently, researchers have found that the jellyfish populations have skyrocketed due to the overfishing. Now Japanese fishing nets catch more unwanted jellyfish than fish. These stinging creatures are bombarding the world’s beaches and are becoming an annoyance to beach goers. The jellyfish has overtaken the world’s oceans, making this creature seem more of a nuisance than a convenience. Though a bad reputation has been casted over the jellyfish, this species may prove to be beneficial. Jellyfish have the potential to act as a food source for healthy diets, to sustain fisheries for a stable economy, and to treat arthritis.

For over a thousand years, jellyfish have been a traditional delicacy to the Chinese and recently the nutritional value has been suggested. In China, weddings and formal banquets have jellyfish served in the salads (Hsieh 13). Japan serves jellyfish in a sushi form while Thailand serves jellyfish as a crunchy noodle (Caroline 40). The question is: why would people in Asian society eat jellyfish, if they are menacing creatures with tentacles that sting? The truth is jellyfish are a healthy food source. According to a report commissioned by Spain’s Environment Ministry, “Jellyfish contain 95 percent water… and proteins… and contain almost no lipids, carbohydrates, or cholesterol” (Nash 1). Basically, the report found that jellyfish are a great diet food because jellyfish are high in water and protein. Water decreases appetite, carries nutrients, removes waste, and regulates temperature, while protein helps build bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood. According to Li Jian-Rong and Yun-Hwa P Hsieh, authors of “Traditional Chinese Food Technology and Cuisine”, “the caloric value for a normal 100 g serving of ready-to-use jellyfish is less than 20 kcal,” (152). In other words, jellyfish are extremely low in calories and perfect for people who are watching their weight.

Although jellyfish provide a low calorie diet, in order to use these stinging creatures to a dietary advantage, the jellyfish must go through processing in order to be edible. The jellyfish’s umbrella and oral arms are first separated, then cleaned and soaked in water. A salt and alum mixture coats the umbrella and oral arms. After this step, the umbrella and oral arms are pressed and dried for two to five weeks. Afterwards, the process for product packaging begins, lasting four to six days. Then desalting and rehydration in water occurs in preparation for the shredding, marinating, and cooking of the jellyfish. After the completion of these steps, the jellyfish is finally ready to be served (Jian-rong and Hsieh 151).

Some may find jellyfish to not be a viable food source. Jian-rong and Hsieh, believed that, “the overnight desalting procedure and preparation of jellyfish dish may become a barrier for modern consumers with busy life styles” (152). Today we live in a world where people are looking to prepare fast, easy meals. Jellyfish simply would not fit under these standards. Although the process of desalting is time consuming, processors have found an easier way to package the jellyfish for consumers. Li and Hsieh have said that, “This has been overcome by developing shredded ready to use products with varieties of flavor and sauces” (152). Basically, jellyfish products have adapted to become consumer needs and lifestyles. By jellyfish coming in a package readymade meal, preparation is quick and simple again. In fact, according to Li and Hsieh, “shredded jellyfish have appeared on the supermarket packaged together with condiments such as soy sauce, wasabi or mustard, as a convenient ready to eat food” (152). By having, the shredded jellyfish packaged with condiments and placed in assorted flavors consumers are able to pick the flavor that best suits their palate. No longer is the jellyfish a hassle to prepare, but instead it is a delectable meal that can be eaten any time.

In order to sell these delectable jellyfish on the market, there must be fisheries to sustain the consumer’s needs. Li and Hsieh found that “today semi dried salted jellyfish represent a multimillion-dollar seafood business in Asia” (152). In other words, jellyfish bring in huge amounts of money. The jellyfish industry can improve the local economies because job opportunities are present. Fu-Ming and Hsieh, authors of “Jellyfish as Food”, state, “Processing jellyfish in Asia is a low cost operation that requires little capital but in labor intensive” (11). Since the cost of fishing operations requires little capital, starting up a jellyfish industry would be more realistic in comparison to other fishing industries. The creation of a jellyfish fishing industry could potentially create thousands of jobs in the harvesting of jellyfish. Jobs would include a range of people working on boats harvesting jellyfish to people processing jellyfish for consumption. With new jobs in place, people will have the opportunity to make money and spend it, improving the local economy.

In addition to helping Asia, jellyfish could help boost the United States economy and rid the nuisance. The abundance of jellyfish in our oceans shows that just about any country could start an industry based on jellyfish. Fu-Ming and Hsieh found that “… the U.S. [is] utilizing [its] available species to produce jellyfish products for export” (11). This means that the United States is creating an exporting trade sustained on jellyfish found near its homeland. Fu-Ming and Hsieh explained that the “United States considered the Cannonball Jellyfish to be a nuisance” (11). This is because during the summer jellyfish come close to the coastal waters and swarm around areas that beachgoers tend to visit (Fu-Ming and Hsieh 11). When jellyfish are too abundant, many people do not wish to go to the beach because they are afraid they may be stung. Jellyfish also cause harm to native fish by consuming nutrients that other fish species utilize. Fu-Ming and Hsieh found that a fishery in Florida initiated the first harvesting and processing industry for Cannonball Jellyfish in 1992, in order to get rid of the nuisance and to turn the Cannonball Jellyfish into value-added products (11). In other words, the U.S. decided to harvest the Cannonball Jellyfish and export to countries like Japan and China, where the demand for jellyfish products is high. The exporting of jellyfish benefits the U.S. economically because the industry makes money off exporting the jellyfish and benefits the environment because jellyfish no longer cause harm to native fish species.

Anthony Richardson, Andrew Bakun, Graema Hays, and Mark Gibbons, authors of “The Jellyfish Joyride,” believe that “jellyfish products for food and medicine may put an increase fishing pressure on non-problem species in healthy ecosystems” (319). They believe that overfishing of major fish like tuna and salmon has occurred, dropping major fish populations to minute numbers. They are afraid that the fishing industry will turn to fish species that have greater populations, like jellyfish. If this occurs, fishing industries could potentially reduce populations in these substitute fish species, and bring their numbers down to a plummeting halt. Healthy ecosystems could collapse under these strenuous conditions causing holes in the food chain and creating gaps in healthy ecosystems.

Although Richardson, Bakun, Hays, and Gibbons argue that the jellyfish products may put an increase fishing pressure, Fui-Ming and Hsieh state that “Asian countries are actively developing fisheries management plans in an effort to conserve the jellyfish” (11). The two argue that, “In both China and Thailand, the government fisheries departments control the jellyfish season” (11). In essence, the government is developing conservation techniques to preserve the jellyfish species, and decrease the fishing pressures put upon the jellyfish and other non-problem species. Fui-Ming and Hsieh found that one of the conservation techniques used to preserve the jellyfish is that, “during the last several weeks of the season, the governments do not allow catching because the jellyfish are largest and reproducing” (11). This guideline enables the jellyfish to reproduce in larger numbers therefore allowing the jellyfish to replenish their population. As long as the government installs and enforces guidelines to conserve jellyfish, jellyfish products for food and medicine should not increase fishing pressures.

In addition to feeding people and sustaining fishing industries, jellyfish are being used to a medicinal advantage. Scientists believe that jellyfish collagen could potentially be an effective cure for Rheumatoid Arthritis: “Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the joints, which gradually erodes the cartilage and bone” (“Rheumatoid arthritis”). In other words, the body sees itself as a threat and attacks tissue that would otherwise be healthy. A person without Rheumatoid Arthritis has cartilage between two bones that are connected. The cartilage keeps the bones from rubbing together and acts as padding and a shock absorber. A person with Rheumatoid Arthritis has worn and broken down cartilage because the body sees the healthy cartilage as a threat and attacks, therefore destroying the cartilage padding.

Researchers have found that “The primary protein in cartilage, Type II Collagen (CII) is crucial to joint health and function” (“Rheumatoid Arthritis”). Rheumatoid Arthritis, however, attacks the cartilage, breaks down the Type II Collagen, and leaves the joint weak and inflamed. Researchers are searching for an effective cure to keep the joints of Rheumatoid Arthritis patients healthy and functioning. Jian-Rong and Hsieh may have the answer to this cure. The two hypothesize that “collagen … may be the ingredient in jellyfish contributing to the beneficial health effects because collagen is the essential building material of muscle tissue, cartilage, and bone, and has great medicinal promise” (152). In other words, Jian-Rong and Hsieh believe that collagen taken from jellyfish could potentially be a beneficial medicinal treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Experiments on lab rats were needed in order to see if jellyfish collagen was a potential treatment for human rheumatoid arthritis. Hsieh reported, “Laboratory rats fed with low doses of Cannonball Jellyfish collagen had significantly delayed the onset and reduced the incidence and severity of antigen induced arthritis, [an antigen] model that [is similar to] … human rheumatoid arthritis” (152). In essence, lab rats with the arthritis antigen had similar symptoms to human Rheumatoid Arthritis, which included inflammation and stiffness. The collagen harvested from jellyfish suppressed these symptoms in the rats. This experiment gives supporting evidence in that jellyfish collagen may be an effective cure to human Rheumatoid Arthritis because jellyfish collagen was able to suppress symptoms in rats with a similar arthritis antigen.

Another study done by Anhui Medical University of China showed that chicken collagen also suppressed the symptoms of human Rheumatoid Arthritis (Can Chicken). Although their findings prove to be true, Brian Wright, who works for the office of technology transfer at Auburn University, found that “Jellyfish collagen is more homogeneous than bovine or chicken Type II collagen, [and] it showed a superior effect in suppressing the onset of arthritis in rats” (1). In other words, jellyfish collagen is more effective in the treatment of human Rheumatoid Arthritis than chicken collagen. Wright also found that another advantage to using jellyfish collage instead of chicken collagen is that jellyfish collagen is “less expensive to extract and minimizes the effect of adverse side effects” (1). This means that jellyfish collagen is not costly and is safe to administer to Rheumatoid Arthritis patients.

Imagine sitting in a restaurant and having your sever bring you a plate of jellyfish with your choice of soy sauce, wasabi or mustard. Instead of pushing this dish to the side, remember that jellyfish can be a beneficial food source because they are full of water and protein, making them a powerful diet food. The demand for jellyfish on the menu is rising, creating fishing industries that boost local economies and create job opportunities. Jellyfish also are a medicinal benefit because they contain collagen that slows or stops the effects of arthritis. So next time you see a jellyfish remember they are more beneficial than they are harmful.
Work Cited 
"Can Chicken Collagen Treat Symptoms of Rheumatoid Arthritis." Arthritis, Arthritis Diet, Arthritis Exercises, Arthritis Therapies. YOGY, 23 Aug. 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2010. 
Fui-Ming, Jack Rudloe, and Peggy Hsieh. "Jellyfish as 
Food."Hydrobiologia 2007: 11-17. Seaturtle. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Web. 9 Nov. 2010 
"Jellyfish Facts." AC Tropical Fish & Aquarium. 2006. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. 
Jian-Rong, Li, and Yun-Hwa P. Hsieh. "Traditional Chinese food technology and 
cuisine." Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13.2 (2004): 147-155. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 5 Nov. 2010. 
Nash, Elizabeth. "Something Fishy about the Jelly on Your Plate?" LexisNexis. LexisNexis, 01 Nov. 2008. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. 
"Rheumatoid Arthritis, Role Of Type II Collagen, Study." Medical News Today. 04 Dec. 2005. Web. 29 Nov. 2010. 
Richardson, Anthony J, Andrew Bakun, Graema Hays, Mark Gibbons. 
"The Jellyfish Joyride: Causes, Consequences and Management Responses to a More Gelatinous Future." Cell Press. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. 

Williams, Caroline. "The next big fin." New Scientist 201 (2009): 40-3. OmniFile Full Text Mega. Web. 5 Nov. 2010. 
Wright, Brian. "Use of Jellyfish Collagen in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis." Auburn University. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.

Whale Falls

Whale fall stages lead to stepping-stone 

A group of five or more killer whales has come across a young blue whale and mother. The pod strategizes an attack, where each killer whale takes turns chasing the mother and her calf. The mother tries to push her calf towards the surface to breathe for air, but the killer whales persist on, tiring out the calf and the mother. The calf finally separates from the mother and the killer whales attack preventing the calf from coming up for air. The young blue whale drowns, and the killer whales feast on their prey.

This scenario is one of many that can lead to the production of a whale fall. As the whales’ corpse settles to the bottom of the ocean, three known phases of colonization can occur. These three phases are the mobile scavengers phase, the enrichment – opportunist stage, and the sulfophilic stage (Calkins 2010). Different assemblages of species appear at each stage giving evidences that whale falls may be the stepping-stone between hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. This paper will discuss the formation of each phase, the organisms found at each phase, and the stepping-stone theory between whale falls, hydrothermal vents, and cold seeps.

The first phase is the mobile scavenger phase. This stage lasts only a few months, and is the shortest of the three stages because scavenger organisms like the hagfish, sleeper sharks, rattail fish, amphipods, and crustaceans devour the meat of the whales’ corpse (Calkins 2010). First crustacean plankton colonizes the whale, then sharks, and scavenger fish. There is a high density of species on the whale; however, there is very little diversity between the species. Amphiopods and copepods carve tunnels into the whales’ body as they consume most of the whales flesh. Predators have easier access to the whales’ meat because of this (Bonnemains 2010).

In a study, Craig Smith and his colleagues supported by NURP implanted three whale carcasses off the coast of southern California (Russo 2004). Alvin the Human Operated Vehicle took these scientists to the whale fall sites to observe the mobile scavenger phase in action (Russo 2004). They found that after six weeks of implantation one whale was still largely intact, but had hundreds of hagfish feeding on it (Milius 2005). The hagfish had become forty centimeters long and were feeding on the meat of the carcass (Milius 2005). In order to take a piece of the whales meat for food, the hagfish takes a biting grip in the whale, ties itself in a knot, and then pulls its body out using its force to tear out a piece of the whales meat (Milius 2005). Black hagfish and the white-headed hagfish are the typical hagfish species that aggregate around whale falls (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish live inside the whales’ skeleton because they are able to survive high levels of carbon gas and methane (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish are an interesting species because they are the only fish known to keep their blood at the same concentration of salt as the outside environment (Bonnemains 2010). Hagfish are able to live five years and swim to depths of 3000 meters (Bonnemains 2010). They have an extraordinary sense of smell that allows them to smell a whales’ carcass from 0.6 to 0.8 meters away (Bonnemains 2010).

Scientists also found Sleeper Sharks in the midst of the scavenging organisms. This was a new discover because Sleeper Sharks are rarely seen by humans, because they are a deep-water species. Sleeper sharks between 1.5 and 3.5 meters have been seen feeding on grey whale falls by grabbing the whales’ meat and then twisting its body back and forth until a piece is freed (Milius 2005) (Bonnemains 2010). Observations of bite marks on whale falls have led scientist to believe that the sleeper shark, in comparison to other fish species, consumes the bulk of the whales’ meat (Bonnemains 2010).

During this mobile scavenger phase, thirty-eight different species may take part in the consumption of 90 percent of whales’ meat and tissue (Russo 2004).The consumption rate per day is an estimated 40 to 60 kilograms of flesh per day (Bennett 2002). The bulk of the whale meat is gone within eighteen months (Milius 2005). One of the implanted whale carcasses, located off the coast of Santa Cruz, has sustained the mobile scavenger phase for the past nine months, and has the potential to last two years (Russo 2004). The sediment around the whale carcass is full of nutrients from the debris left behind by the scavengers and attracts smaller organisms to start the next phase of colonization (Calkins 2010).

The second phase is the enrichment- opportunist stage. This stage can last 4 months to 5 years (Bonnemains 2010). Snails, little amphipods, and segmented worms aggregate around the whale fall during this stage. Baco-Taylor and other scientists have found that 45,000 individuals are in each square meter of sediment (Milius 2005). These organisms feed off the organic material stored in whalebones and the sediments, up to 3 meters away, which surround the whale skeleton (Bonnemains 2010) (Bennett 2002).

Several polychaetes and clams are exclusive to the enrichment- opportunist stage of whale falls. Smith describes finding a polychaetes worm that sends green root like coils into the bone. These roots then release a rod shaped bacteria that break down organic compounds in order for the worm to digest (Milius 2005). These worms can grow as long as fifty millimeters and resemble centipedes (Russo 2004).

Beggiotoa bacteria also colonize along the bones of the whale skeleton forming a bacterial mat made of long filaments. This bacterium oxidizes hydrogen sulfide as an energy source. Segmented worms called Bathykurile guaymasensis then eat these bacteria and receive their nutrients this way (Milius 2005).

After the worms disappear the Beggiotoa bacteria continues to feed on the fats and oils contained in the whales’ bone (Bennett 2002). This is the start of the third phase, the sulfophilic stage. This phase can last forty to eighty years (Bonnemains 2010). Three key elements characterize this phase. First, bacterial mats cover the surface of the bone (Bonnemains 2010). Then, large populations of clams move in. these clams harbor chemosynthetic bacteria (Bonnemains 2010). Finally, over 30,000 individual bivalves, amphiopods, polychaetes, limpets, gastropods, and crustaceans aggregate (Bonnemains 2010).

About sixty percent of the whales’ weight is made of lipid, which bacteria break down in order to produce sulfide (Calkins 2010). Bacteria then use chemosynthesis to oxidize sulfide to make organic matter that supports other organisms like the Vestimentiferan tubeworm.

Bacteria form the basis of the food web, because without chemosynthesis life would no longer occur. Light is unable to penetrate the depths at which the whale skeleton has sunk, and there is no longer and meat left on the bones. The only way to survive is to harvest bacteria that use the process of chemosynthesis for energy.

Mollusks aggregate around the whale fall during the last stage. Vesicomyid clams carry a sulfide- metabolizing bacteria and get their energy directly from the sulfide. The Idas washingtonia mussel has been seem to colonize in the 10,000’s on a single whale (Milius 2005).

Scientists have found 190 different bottom dwelling species on a single whale carcass (Calkins 2010). These organisms use the whale fall as a food source and a substrate. Carnivorous gastropods feed on the bivalves, the bivalves feed off their bacteria, and the bacteria gain their energy through chemosynthesis. In fact, the sulfophilic stage can have at least three different levels on the food web at any given time (Bonnemains 2010).

In the late stages of the sulfophilic stage, the whale fall community begins to resemble the communities found at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps also have bacteria as the basis of their food webs and are host to ten to twenty percent of the 200-sulpholic species found at whale falls (Bennett 2002). Just as the bacteria found at whale falls the bacteria at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps also oxidize sulfide in order to make organic matter.

In addition, DNA analysis allowed Smith and other scientists to compare the genetic makeup of Idas washingtonia found on whale falls to a mussel found on deep- sea wood. Scientists found that these two mussels share the same sub family, Bathymodilinae, with mussels found on hydrothermal vents and cold seeps (Russo 2004). In fact, these molecular studies show that whale falls may actually serve as a stepping-stone between cold seeps and hydrothermal vents (Smith 2003). Smith theorizes that the ancestors of these mussels may have moved deeper into the ocean following the whale falls organic food source. The mussels then moved from the organic richness of the whale fall to the sulfide rich hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. This theory could be true for other organisms. For example, California whale falls share ten species with vents, nine with seeps, four with anoxic sediment, and one with wood falls (Russo 2004).

Whale falls are an important bridge between hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. Hydrothermal vent are commonly found along the mid-ocean ridge, such as the east pacific rise and the mid Atlantic ridge. Some cold seeps include the Florida Escarpment and the Laurentian Fan. Hydrothermal vents and cold seeps are not located near each other therefore organisms are unable to travel to these locations without the help of whale falls. Whale falls are more widespread than hydrothermal vents and seeps (Smith 2003). Researchers estimate that roughly every five to sixteen kilometers along the sea floor is a whale fall (Bennett 2002). This would make the journey of organisms from hydrothermal vents, close seeps, and whale falls, easier because locations would be closer together.

Each phase of the whale falls brings a diverse assemblage of species. The first stage, mobile scavenger phase, features organisms that feed on the meat. The second stage, enrichment – opportunist phase, features organisms that feed on the bones. The third stage, sulfophilic phase, features organisms that use chemosynthesis for energy. Each stage processes new life on the whale fall. The whale fall may even give passageway for organisms to move to hydrothermal vent and cold seeps, proving the stepping- stone theory correct.

Work Cited:
Bennett, Kim. "Whale Falls—islands of Abundance and Diversity in the Deep Sea." Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. Dec. 2002. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2002/dec20_whalefall.html>. Bonnemains, Jacky. "Of Whales and Their Usefulnessy." Robin Des Bois. Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. 
<http://www.robindesbois.org/english/Of_whales_and_their_Usefulness.pdf>. 
Calkins, Mandy. "Whale Falls." Science and the Sea. The University of Texas Marine Science Institute, 08 Mar. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. 
<http://www.scienceandthesea.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=276&Itemid=6>. 
Milius, Susan. "Decades of Dinner Underwater Community Begins with the Remains of a 
Whale." Science News Online. 07 May 2005. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.phschool.com/science/science_news/articles/decades_of_dinner.html>. 
Russo, Julie Z. "This Whale's (After) Life." NURP. NOAA's Undersea Research Program, 21 Aug. 2004. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.nurp.noaa.gov/Spotlight/Whales.htm>. 
Smith, Craig R. and Baco, Amy R. (2003): Ecology of whale falls at the deep-sea floor. In R.N. 
Gibson and R.J.A. Atkinson, eds., Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual 
Review, vol. 41, pp. 311-354.